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A Alling

Publications and source records attributed to A Alling.

15 recordsLinked to original sources
PubMed2005

Atmospheric dynamics in the "Laboratory Biosphere" with wheat and sweet potato crops.

Laboratory Biosphere is a 40-m3 closed life system equipped with 12,000 W of high pressure sodium lamps over planting beds with 5.37 m2 of soil. Atmospheric composition changes due to photosynthetic fixation of carbon dioxide and corresponding production of oxygen or the reverse, respiration, are observed in short timeframes, e.g., hourly. To focus on inherent characteristics of the crop as distinct from its area or the volume of the chamber, we report fixation and respiration rates in mmol h-1 m-2 of planted area. An 85-day crop of USU Apogee wheat under a 16-h lighted/8-h dark regime peaked in fixation rate at about 100 mmol h-1 m-2 approximately 24 days after planting. Light intensity was about 840 micromoles m-2 s-1. Dark respiration peaked at about 31 mmol h-1 m-2 at the same time. Thereafter, both fixation and respiration declined toward zero as harvest time approached. A residual soil respiration rate of about 1.9 mmol h-1 m-2 was observed in the dark closed chamber for 100 days after the harvest. A 126-day crop of Tuskegee TU-82-155 sweet potato behaved quite differently. Under a 680 micromoles m-2 s-1, 18-h lighted/6-h dark regime, fixation during lighted hours rose to a plateau ranging from about 27 to 48 mmol h-1 m-2 after 42 days and dark respiration settled into a range of 12-23 mmol h-1 m-2. These rates continued unabated until the harvest at 126 days, suggesting that tuber biomass production might have continued at about the same rate for some time beyond the harvest time that was exercised in this experiment. In both experiments CO2 levels were allowed to range widely from a few hundred to about 3000 ppm, which permitted observation of fixation rates both at varying CO2 concentrations and at each number of days after planting. This enables plotting the fixation rate as a function of both variables. Understanding the atmospheric dynamics of individual crops will be essential for design and atmospheric management of more complex CELSS which integrate the simultaneous growth of several crops as in a sustainable remote life support system.

Biomass↗
PubMed2005

Crop yield and light/energy efficiency in a closed ecological system: Laboratory Biosphere experiments with wheat and sweet potato.

Two crop growth experiments in the soil-based closed ecological facility, Laboratory Biosphere, were conducted from 2003 to 2004 with candidate space life support crops. Apogee wheat (Utah State University variety) was grown, planted at two densities, 400 and 800 seeds m-2. The lighting regime for the wheat crop was 16 h of light-8 h dark at a total light intensity of around 840 micromoles m-2 s-1 and 48.4 mol m-2 d-1 over 84 days. Average biomass was 1395 g m-2, 16.0 g m-2 d-1 and average seed production was 689 g m-2 and 7.9 g m-2 d-1. The less densely planted side was more productive than the denser planting, with 1634 g m-2 and 18.8 g m-2 d-1 of biomass vs. 1156 g m-2 and 13.3 g m-2 d-1; and a seed harvest of 812.3 g m-2 and 9.3 g m-2 d-1 vs. 566.5 g m-2 and 6.5 g m-2 d-1. Harvest index was 0.49 for the wheat crop. The experiment with sweet potato used TU-82-155 a compact variety developed at Tuskegee University. Light during the sweet potato experiment, on a 18 h on/6 h dark cycle, totaled 5568 total moles of light per square meter in 126 days for the sweet potatoes, or an average of 44.2 mol m-2 d-1. Temperature regime was 28 +/- 3 degrees C day/22 +/- 4 degrees C night. Sweet potato tuber yield was 39.7 kg wet weight, or an average of 7.4 kg m-2, and 7.7 kg dry weight of tubers since dry weight was about 18.6% wet weight. Average per day production was 58.7 g m-2 d-1 wet weight and 11.3 g m-2 d-1. For the wheat, average light efficiency was 0.34 g biomass per mole, and 0.17 g seed per mole. The best area of wheat had an efficiency of light utilization of 0.51 g biomass per mole and 0.22 g seed per mole. For the sweet potato crop, light efficiency per tuber wet weight was 1.33 g mol-1 and 0.34 g dry weight of tuber per mole of light. The best area of tuber production had 1.77 g mol-1 wet weight and 0.34 g mol-1 of light dry weight. The Laboratory Biosphere experiment's light efficiency was somewhat higher than the USU field results but somewhat below greenhouse trials at comparable light levels, and the best portion of the crop at 0.22 g mol-1 was in-between those values. Sweet potato production was overall close to 50% higher than trials using hydroponic methods with TU-82-155 at NASA JSC. Compared to projected yields for the Mars on Earth life support system, these wheat yields were about 15% higher, and the sweet potato yields averaged over 80% higher.

Biomass↗
PubMed2005

Soil and crop management experiments in the Laboratory Biosphere: an analogue system for the Mars on Earth(R) facility.

During the years 2002 and 2003, three closed system experiments were carried out in the "Laboratory Biosphere" facility located in Santa Fe, New Mexico. The program involved experimentation of "Hoyt" Soy Beans, (experiment #1) USU Apogee Wheat (experiment #2) and TU-82-155 sweet potato (experiment #3) using a 5.37 m2 soil planting bed which was 30 cm deep. The soil texture, 40% clay, 31% sand and 28% silt (a clay loam), was collected from an organic farm in New Mexico to avoid chemical residues. Soil management practices involved minimal tillage, mulching, returning crop residues to the soil after each experiment and increasing soil biota by introducing worms, soil bacteria and mycorrhizae fungi. High soil pH of the original soil appeared to be a factor affecting the first two experiments. Hence, between experiments #2 and #3, the top 15 cm of the soil was amended using a mix of peat moss, green sand, humates and pumice to improve soil texture, lower soil pH and increase nutrient availability. This resulted in lowering the initial pH of 8.0-6.7 at the start of experiment #3. At the end of the experiment, the pH was 7.6. Soil nitrogen and phosphorus has been adequate, but some chlorosis was evident in the first two experiments. Aphid infestation was the only crop pest problem during the three experiments and was handled using an introduction of Hyppodamia convergens. Experimentation showed there were environmental differences even in this 1200 cubic foot ecological system facility, such as temperature and humidity gradients because of ventilation and airflow patterns which resulted in consequent variations in plant growth and yield. Additional humidifiers were added to counteract low humidity and helped optimize conditions for the sweet potato experiment. The experience and information gained from these experiments are being applied to the future design of the Mars On Earth(R) facility (Silverstone et al., Development and research program for a soil-based bioregenerative agriculture system to feed a four person crew at a Mars base, Advances in Space Research 31(1) (2003) 69-75; Allen and Alling, The design approach for Mars On Earth(R), a biospheric closed system testing facility for long-term space habitation, American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics Inc., IAC-02-IAA.8.2.02, 2002).

Agriculture↗
PubMed2004

Technical review of the Laboratory Biosphere closed ecological system facility.

Laboratory Biosphere is a 40 m3 closed life system that commenced operation in May 2002. Light is from 12,000 W of high pressure sodium lamps over planting beds with 5.37 m2 of soil. Water is 100% recycled by collecting condensate from the temperature and humidity control system and mixing with leachate collected from under the planting beds. Atmospheric leakage was estimated during the first closure experiment to be 0.5-1% per day in general plus about 1% for each usage of the airlock door. The first trial run of 94 days was with a soybean crop grown from seeds (May 17, 2002) to harvest (August 14, 2002) plus 5 days of post-harvest closure. The focus of this initial trial was system testing to confirm functionality and identify any necessary modifications or improvements. This paper describes the organizational and physical features of the Laboratory Biosphere.

Air Conditioning↗
PubMed2003

Development and research program for a soil-based bioregenerative agriculture system to feed a four person crew at a Mars base.

For humans to survive during long-term missions on the Martian surface, bioregenerative life support systems including food production will decrease requirements for launch of Earth supplies, and increase mission safety. It is proposed that the development of "modular biospheres"--closed system units that can be air-locked together and which contain soil-based bioregenerative agriculture, horticulture, with a wetland wastewater treatment system is an approach for Mars habitation scenarios. Based on previous work done in long-term life support at Biosphere 2 and other closed ecological systems, this consortium proposes a research and development program called Mars On Earth(TM) which will simulate a life support system designed for a four person crew. The structure will consist of 6 x 110 square meter modular agricultural units designed to produce a nutritionally adequate diet for 4 people, recycling all air, water and waste, while utilizing a soil created by the organic enrichment and modification of Mars simulant soils. Further research needs are discussed, such as determining optimal light levels for growth of the necessary range of crops, energy trade-offs for agriculture (e.g. light intensity vs. required area), capabilities of Martian soils and their need for enrichment and elimination of oxides, strategies for use of human waste products, and maintaining atmospheric balance between people, plants and soils.

Air Conditioning↗
PubMed2003

Advantages of using subsurface flow constructed wetlands for wastewater treatment in space applications: ground-based Mars Base prototype.

Research and design of subsurface flow wetland wastewater treatment systems for a ground-based experimental prototype Mars Base facility has been carried out, using a subsurface flow approach. These systems have distinct advantages in planetary exploration scenarios: they are odorless, relatively low-labor and low-energy, assist in purification of water and recycling of atmospheric CO2, and will support some food crops. An area of 6-8 m2 may be sufficient for integration of wetland wastewater treatment with a prototype Mars Base supporting 4-5 people. Discharge water from the wetland system will be used as irrigation water for the agricultural crop area, thus ensuring complete recycling and utilization of nutrients. Since the primary requirements for wetland treatment systems are warm temperatures and lighting, such bioregenerative systems may be integrated into early Mars base habitats, since waste heat from the lights may be used for temperature maintenance in the human living environment. "Wastewater gardens (TM)" can be modified for space habitats to lower space and mass requirements. Many of its construction requirements can eventually be met with use of in-situ materials, such as gravel from the Mars surface. Because the technology requires little machinery and no chemicals, and relies more on natural ecological mechanisms (microbial and plant metabolism), maintenance requirements are minimized, and systems can be expected to have long operating lifetimes. Research needs include suitability of Martian soil and gravel for wetland systems, system sealing and liner options in a Mars Base, and wetland water quality efficiency under varying temperature and light regimes.

Ecological Systems, Closed↗
PubMed2003

The legacy of Biosphere 2 for the study of biospherics and closed ecological systems.

The unprecedented challenges of creating Biosphere 2, the world's first laboratory for biospherics, the study of global ecology and long-term closed ecological system dynamics, led to breakthrough developments in many fields, and a deeper understanding of the opportunities and difficulties of material closure. This paper will review accomplishments and challenges, citing some of the key research findings and publications that have resulted from the experiments in Biosphere 2. Engineering accomplishments included development of a technique for variable volume to deal with pressure differences between the facility and outside environment, developing methods of atmospheric leak detection and sealing, while achieving new standards of closure, with an annual atmospheric leakrate of less than 10%, or less than 300 ppm per day. This degree of closure permitted detailed tracking of carbon dioxide, oxygen, and trace gases such as nitrous oxide and ethylene over the seasonal variability of two years. Full closure also necessitated developing new approaches and technologies for complete air, water, and wastewater recycle and reuse within the facility. The development of a soil-based highly productive agricultural system was a first in closed ecological systems, and much was learned about managing a wide variety of crops using non-chemical means of pest and disease control. Closed ecological systems have different temporal biogeochemical cycling and ranges of atmospheric components because of their smaller reservoirs of air, water and soil, and higher concentration of biomass, and Biosphere 2 provided detailed examination and modeling of these accelerated cycles over a period of closure which measured in years. Medical research inside Biosphere 2 included the effects on humans of lowered oxygen: the discovery that human productivity can be maintained with good health with lowered atmospheric oxygen levels could lead to major economies on the design of space stations and planetary/lunar settlements. The improved health resulting from the calorie-restricted but nutrient dense Biosphere 2 diet was the first such scientifically controlled experiment with humans. The success of Biosphere 2 in creating a diversity of terrestrial and marine environments, from rainforest to coral reef, allowed detailed studies with comprehensive measurements such that the dynamics of these complex biomic systems are now better understood. The coral reef ecosystem, the largest artificial reef ever built, catalyzed methods of study now being applied to planetary coral reef systems. Restoration ecology advanced through the creation and study of the dynamics of adaptation and self-organization of the biomes in Biosphere 2. The international interest that Biosphere 2 generated has given new impetus to the public recognition of the sciences of biospheres (biospherics), biomes and closed ecological life systems. The facility, although no longer a materially-closed ecological system, is being used as an educational facility by Columbia University as an introduction to the study of the biosphere and complex system ecology and for carbon dioxide impacts utilizing the complex ecosystems created in Biosphere '. The many lessons learned from Biosphere 2 are being used by its key team of creators in their design and operation of a laboratory-sized closed ecological system, the Laboratory Biosphere, in operation as of March 2002, and for the design of a Mars on Earth(TM) prototype life support system for manned missions to Mars and Mars surface habitats. Biosphere 2 is an important foundation for future advances in biospherics and closed ecological system research.

Agriculture↗
PubMed2003

Earth applications of closed ecological systems: relevance to the development of sustainability in our global biosphere.

The parallels between the challenges facing bioregenerative life support in artificial closed ecological systems and those in our global biosphere are striking. At the scale of the current global technosphere and expanding human population, it is increasingly obvious that the biosphere can no longer safely buffer and absorb technogenic and anthropogenic pollutants. The loss of biodiversity, reliance on non-renewable natural resources, and conversion of once wild ecosystems for human use with attendant desertification/soil erosion, has led to a shift of consciousness and the widespread call for sustainability of human activities. For researchers working on bioregenerative life support in closed systems, the small volumes and faster cycling times than in the Earth's biosphere make it starkly clear that systems must be designed to ensure renewal of water and atmosphere, nutrient recycling, production of healthy food, and safe environmental methods of maintaining technical systems. The development of technical systems that can be fully integrated and supportive of living systems is a harbinger of new perspectives as well as technologies in the global environment. In addition, closed system bioregenerative life support offers opportunities for public education and consciousness changing of how to live with our global biosphere.

Biodiversity↗
PubMed2003

Initial experimental results from the Laboratory Biosphere closed ecological system facility.

An initial experiment in the Laboratory Biosphere facility, Santa Fe, New Mexico, was conducted May-August 2002 using a soil-based system with light levels (at 12 h per day) of 58-mol m-2 d-1. The crop tested was soybean, cultivar Hoyt, which produced an aboveground biomass of 2510 grams. Dynamics of a number of trace gases showed that methane, nitrous oxide, carbon monoxide, and hydrogen gas had initial increases that were substantially reduced in concentration by the end of the experiment. Methane was reduced from 209 ppm to 11 ppm, and nitrous oxide from 5 ppm to 1.4 ppm in the last 40 days of the closure experiment. Ethylene was at elevated levels compared to ambient during the flowering/fruiting phase of the crop. Soil respiration from the 5.37 m2 (1.46 m3) soil component was estimated at 23.4 ppm h-1 or 1.28 g CO2 h-1 or 5.7 g CO2 m-2 d-1. Phytorespiration peaked near the time of fruiting at about 160 ppm h-1. At the height of plant growth, photosynthesis CO2 draw down was as high as 3950 ppm d-1, and averaged 265 ppm h-1 (whole day averages) during lighted hours with a range of 156-390 ppm h-1. During this period, the chamber required injections of CO2 to continue plant growth. Oxygen levels rose along with the injections of carbon dioxide. Upon several occasions, CO2 was allowed to be drawn down to severely limiting levels, bottoming at around 150 ppm. A strong positive correlation (about 0.05 ppm h-1 ppm-1 with r2 about 0.9 for the range 1000-5000 ppm) was observed between atmospheric CO2 concentration and the rate of fixation up to concentrations of around 8800 ppm CO2.

Biomass↗
PubMed2002

Potential integration of wetland wastewater treatment with space life support systems.

Subsurface-flow constructed wetlands for wastewater treatment and nutrient recycling have a number of advantages in planetary exploration scenarios: they are odorless, relatively low labor and low energy, assist in purification of water and recycling of atmospheric CO2, and can directly grow some food crops. This article presents calculations for integration of wetland wastewater treatment with a prototype ground-based experimental facility ("Mars on Earth") supporting four people showing that an area of 4-6 m2 may be sufficient to accomplish wastewater treatment and recycling. Discharge water from the wetland system can be used as irrigation water for the agricultural crop area, thus ensuring complete reclamation and utilization of nutrients within the bioregenerative life support system. Because the primary requirements for wetland treatment systems are warm temperatures and lighting, such bioregenerative systems can be integrated into space life support systems because heat from the lights may be used for temperature maintenance in the human living environment. Subsurface-flow wetlands can be modified for space habitats to lower space and mass requirements. Many of its construction requirements can eventually be met with use of in situ materials, such as gravel from the Mars surface. Because the technology does not depend on machinery and chemicals, and relies more on natural ecological mechanisms (microbial and plant metabolism), maintenance requirements (e.g., pumps, aerators, and chemicals) are minimized, and systems may have long operating lifetimes. Research needs include suitability of Martian soil and gravel for wetland systems, system sealing and liner options in a Mars base, and determination of wetland water quality efficiency under varying temperature and light regimes.

Ecological Systems, Closed↗
PubMed2002

Light, plants, and power for life support on Mars.

Regardless of how well other growing conditions are optimized, crop yields will be limited by the available light up to saturation irradiances. Considering the various factors of clouds on Earth, dust storms on Mars, thickness of atmosphere, and relative orbits, there is roughly 2/3 as much light averaged annually on Mars as on Earth. On Mars, however, crops must be grown under controlled conditions (greenhouse or growth rooms). Because there presently exists no material that can safely be pressurized, insulated, and resist hazards of puncture and deterioration to create life support systems on Mars while allowing for sufficient natural light penetration as well, artificial light will have to be supplied. If high irradiance is provided for long daily photoperiods, the growing area can be reduced by a factor of 3-4 relative to the most efficient irradiance for cereal crops such as wheat and rice, and perhaps for some other crops. Only a small penalty in required energy will be incurred by such optimization. To obtain maximum yields, crops must be chosen that can utilize high irradiances. Factors that increase ability to convert high light into increased productivity include canopy architecture, high-yield index (harvest index), and long-day or day-neutral flowering and tuberization responses. Prototype life support systems such as Bios-3 in Siberia or the Mars on Earth Project need to be undertaken to test and further refine systems and parameters.

Biomass↗
PubMed2001

"Living off the land": resource efficiency of wetland wastewater treatment.

Bioregenerative life support technologies for space application are advantageous if they can be constructed using locally available materials, and rely on renewable energy resources, lessening the need for launch and resupply of materials. These same characteristics are desirable in the global Earth environment because such technologies are more affordable by developing countries, and are more sustainable long-term since they utilize less non-renewable, imported resources. Subsurface flow wetlands (wastewater gardens(TM)) were developed and evaluated for wastewater recycling along the coast of Yucatan. Emergy evaluations, a measure of the environmental and human economic resource utilization, showed that compared to conventional sewage treatment, wetland wastewater treatment systems use far less imported and purchased materials. Wetland systems are also less energy-dependent, lessening dependence on electrical infrastructure, and require simpler maintenance since the system largely relies on the ecological action of microbes and plants for their efficacy. Detailed emergy evaluations showed that wetland systems use only about 15% the purchased emergy of conventional sewage systems, and that renewable resources contribute 60% of total emergy used (excluding the sewage itself) compared to less than 1% use of renewable resources in the high-tech systems. Applied on a larger scale for development in third world countries, wetland systems would require the electrical energy of conventional sewage treatment (package plants), and save of total capital and operating expenses over a 20-year timeframe. In addition, there are numerous secondary benefits from wetland systems including fiber/fodder/food from the wetland plants, creation of ecosystems of high biodiversity with animal habitat value, and aesthestic/landscape enhancement of the community. Wetland wastewater treatment is an exemplar of ecological engineering in that it creates an interface ecosystem to handle byproducts of the human economy, maximizing performance of the both the natural economy and natural ecosystems. Wetland systems accomplish this with far greater resource economy than other sewage treatment approaches, and thus offer benefits for both space and Earth applications.

Conservation of Natural Resources↗
PubMed2000

Mapping and monitoring the health and vitality of coral reefs from satellite: a biospheric approach.

Biospheric studies of coral reefs require a planetary perspective that only remote sensing from space can provide. This article reviews aspects of monitoring and mapping coral reefs using Landsat and Spot satellite images. It details design considerations for developing a sensor for equatorial orbiting spacecraft, including spectral characteristics of living corals and the spatial resolution required to map coral reef communities. Possible instrumentation choices include computer techniques, filtered imagers, push-broom spectral imagery, and a newly developed hyperspectral imaging scheme using tomographic reconstruction. We compare the salient features of each technique and describe concepts for a payload to conduct planetary-scale coral reef monitoring.

Animals↗
PubMed1992

Biosphere 2 Test Module: a ground-based sunlight-driven prototype of a closed ecological life support system.

Constructed in 1986, the Biosphere 2 Test Module has been used since the end of that year for closed ecological systems experiments. It is the largest closed ecological facility ever built, with a sealed variable volume of some 480 cubic meters. It is built with a skin of steel spaceframes with double-laminated glass panels admitting about 65 percent Photosynthetically Active Radiation (PAR). The floor is of welded steel and there is an underground atmospheric connection via an air duct to a variable volume chamber ("lung") permitting expansion and contraction of the Test Module's air volume caused by changes in temperature and barometric pressure, which causes a slight positive pressure from inside the closed system to the outside thereby insuring that the very small leakage rate is outward. Several series of closed ecological system investigations have been carried out in this facility. One series of experiments investigated the dynamics of higher plants and associated soils with the atmosphere under varying light and temperature conditions. Another series of experiments included one human in the closed system for three, five and twenty-one days. During these experiments the Test Module had subsystems which completely recycled its water and atmosphere; all the human dietary needs were produced within the facility, and all wastes were recycled using a marsh plant/microbe system. Other experiments have examined the capability of individual component systems used, such as the soil bed reactors, to eliminate experimentally introduced trace gases. Analytic systems developed for these experiments include continuous monitors of eleven atmospheric gases in addition to the complete gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GCMS) examinations of potable, waste system and irrigation water quality.

Air Conditioning↗