PubMed Health⌕ Search

Biomedical subjects

A Giulivi

Publications and source records attributed to A Giulivi.

At least 19 recordsLinked to original sources
PubMed2006

A review of nearly two decades in an autologous blood programme: The rise and fall of activity.

Autologous blood donation (ABD) has been widely recommended. Data from one of the oldest hospital-based programmes in Canada describe both activities and drawbacks. Data were compared over the nearly two decades of activity that peaked in 1996. A 5-year review of recent activity showed that of the 2410 patients referred for consideration, 1823 (75.64%) were accepted into the programme. Surgical services requested 5825 units of autologous blood. Of these, 3147 units were donated by 1536 patients, 803 units were transfused in the operating room and 558 units were given postoperatively. In total, only 1361 units (43.25%) were transfused. The mean age of the patients was 58 years (median 61 years and mode 69 years). The haemoglobin concentrations before donation were significantly higher, averaging 145.2 g L(-1) before donation and 114.9 g L(-1) immediately before surgery, whereas at the time of discharge, the haemoglobin concentration averaged 126.2 g L(-1) (P = 0.0001) in transfused patients. Data from this well-established ABD programme indicate less than 50% overall utilization. The activity in the programme increased until 1996 following which it dropped progressively. The low haemoglobin concentration after surgery is of concern and should foster a transfusion algorithm for these patients.

Blood Donors↗
PubMed2005

Enhanced surveillance for childhood hepatitis B virus infection in Canada, 1999-2003.

Since hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection can have serious sequelae, especially if infection occurs during childhood, there is a continuing need to examine its epidemiology so as to inform control measures. We analyzed trends in disease incidence and patterns of hepatitis B virus (HBV) transmission in both Canadian-born and non-Canadian-born children from 1999 to 2003, through the Enhanced Hepatitis Strain Surveillance System. Amongst Canadian-born children, the incidence of newly identified HBV infection per 100,000 declined significantly during the study period from 1.4 in 1999, to 0.5 in 2003 (RR, 0.75 per year; 95% CI, 0.60-0.95). Amongst non-Canadian-born children, the incidence of HBV infection per 100,000 ranged from 9.4 to 16.3, during the study period (linear trend test, p=0.69). Poisson regression analysis revealed that non-Canadian-born children were more likely to have HBV infection (RR, 12.3; 95% CI, 7.6 to 19.8), than Canadian-born children. HBV infection was found to be more common among children emigrating from high endemic area, than among Canadian-born children. Current Canadian immunization policy should take into consideration the protection of all children against HBV infection, including those coming from countries where mass hepatitis B vaccination programs have still not been launched.

Journal Article↗
PubMed2005

Mortality from Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease and related disorders in Europe, Australia, and Canada.

BACKGROUND: An international study of the epidemiologic characteristics of Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD) was established in 1993 and included national registries in France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Slovakia, and the United Kingdom. In 1997, the study was extended to Australia, Austria, Canada, Spain, and Switzerland. METHODS: Data were pooled from all participating countries for the years 1993 to 2002 and included deaths from definite or probable CJD of all etiologic subtypes. RESULTS: Four thousand four hundred forty-one cases were available for analysis and included 3,720 cases of sporadic CJD, 455 genetic cases, 138 iatrogenic cases, and 128 variant cases. The overall annual mortality rate between 1999 and 2002 was 1.67 per million for all cases and 1.39 per million for sporadic CJD. Mortality rates were similar in all countries. There was heterogeneity in the distribution of cases by etiologic subtype with an excess of genetic cases in Italy and Slovakia, of iatrogenic cases in France and the UK, and of variant CJD in the UK. CONCLUSIONS: This study has established overall epidemiologic characteristics for Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD) of all types in a multinational population-based study. Intercountry comparisons did not suggest any relative change in the characteristics of sporadic CJD in the United Kingdom, and the evidence in this study does not suggest the occurrence of a novel form of human bovine spongiform encephalopathy infection other than variant CJD. However, this remains a possibility, and countries currently unaffected by variant CJD may yet have cases.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2005

Epidemiological study of hepatitis B virus infection in Manitoba, Canada, 1992-2003.

In comparison with other Canadian provinces and most Western countries, the province of Manitoba maintains a different vaccination policy for hepatitis B. This policy provides selective antenatal screening for hepatitis B in women and an inoculation program for hepatitis B vaccination for fourth-grade pupils. There has been increasing concern for this policy with regard to its influence on secular trends of acute hepatitis B incidence in Manitoba. This created a need to summarise the epidemiological characteristics of hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection in Manitoba and to allocate finances and human resources for future prevention programs. The Cadham Provincial Laboratory in Winnipeg, a Canadian Public Health Laboratory, is responsible for testing all specimens for diagnosis of various common infectious diseases in Manitoba. During the period from 1 January 1992 to 31 December 2003, a total of 285,946 clinical specimens were submitted to this laboratory, which confirmed 310 cases of acute HBV and 7,556 cases of chronic HBV infection. A total of 18,168 individuals were identified as having vaccine-induced immune status. The incidence rate of acute HBV infection has significantly decreased from 6.52/100,000 person-years in 1996 to 0.86/100,000 person-years in 2003. Annual prevalence rates of chronic HBV infection in Manitoba increased slightly from 42.96 cases/100,000 population in 1992 to 71.47 cases/100,000 population in 2003. Incidence rates were generally higher in men than in women at all age groups, with values of 2.65 and 1.65 per 100,000 population, respectively (chi-square=15.768, p value <0.001). The highest incidence rate for both males and females was observed in the age group 30-34 years. The North Eastman and Winnipeg Regional Health Authorities showed significantly higher incidence rates of acute hepatitis B compared with the other nine Regional Health Authorities. Selective hepatitis B vaccination programs for children in Manitoba had achieved the greatest success in the prevention of vertical and horizontal transmission. There is an urgent need to develop cost-effective harm-reduction strategies for hepatitis B prevention among adults (aged 30-34) and groups at risk in Manitoba.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2005

Comparison of antibody- and cell-mediated immune responses after intramuscular hepatitis C immunizations of BALB/c mice.

Current treatments for hepatitis C infection have limited efficacy, and there is no vaccine available. The goal of this study was to compare the immune response to several immunization combinations against hepatitis C virus (HCV). Six groups of mice were immunized at weeks 0, 4, and 8 with different combinations of a candidate HCV vaccine consisting of 100 microg recombinant HCV core/E1/E2 (rHCV) DNA plasmid and/or 25 microg rHCV polyprotein and 50 microL Montanide ISA- 51. Four weeks after the last injection, all groups of mice were sacrificed and blood samples and spleens were collected for measuring the levels of specific HCV antibodies (total IgG, IgG1, and IgG2a). Cell proliferation and intracellular interferon-gamma were also measured. Among the groups of immunized mice, only the mice immunized with rHCV DNA plasmid, rHCV polyprotein, and montanide (group D) and mice immunized with rHCV polyprotein and montanide (group F) demonstrated a significant increase in the total IgG titer after immunization. IgG1 was the predominant antibody detected in both groups D and F. No IgG2a was detected in any of the groups. Proliferation assays demonstrated that splenocytes from group D and group C (rHCV DNA primed/rHCV polyprotein boost) developed significant anti-HCV proliferative responses. The combination of an rHCV DNA plasmid, rHCV polyprotein, and montanide induced a high antibody titer with a predominance of IgG1 antibodies and recognized the major neutralization epitopes in HVR1. In contrast, group C did not show an increase in anti-HCV antibodies, but did show a proliferative response.

Adjuvants, Immunologic↗
PubMed2004

Transcriptional analysis of human peripheral blood mononuclear cells after influenza immunization.

Influenza A virus is a major cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. There is a large knowledge base on the immune response to influenza. However, few studies have focused on global gene expression in immune cells after antigenic challenge. A better understanding of the host immune response is required for the development of more efficient means of prevention and treatment of influenza. In this study, global gene expression in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) after influenza immunization was analyzed. The differential gene expression in antigen-stimulated and non-stimulated PBMCs was determined by cDNA microarrays. To determine whether a specific gene profile was present during a proliferative memory cell response to influenza antigens, gene expression in response to PHA was compared with antigen-stimulated PBMCs. PHA induced the upregulation of 201 genes while influenza virus antigen upregulated more than triple that is 630 genes out of 1700 genes analyzed. Both influenza antigen and PHA commonly upregulated 138 genes. Interferon (IFN)-related genes were induced by influenza but not by PHA. The interferon-gamma induced protein precursor 10 (IP-10) was upregulated 27-fold while the interferon-induced 54 kDa protein exhibited a 13-fold increase. The following gene families were also selectively upregulated by influenza antigens: complement ligands and receptors, T cell activation genes, growth factors, genes related to antigen processing and inflammatory responses. With PHA, the genes TNF-R, CTSG, CD3 delta, C8B, CRF1 and CCR2 had higher expression compared with the viral antigen stimulation. Neutrophil defensins alpha-1 and two C-C chemokines, proteins MIP-1-beta and MIP-4, were among the genes upregulated by both PHA and influenza antigens. The results suggest that interferon-induced genes are one of the main transcriptional targets during the immune response to influenza virus.

Antigens, Viral↗
PubMed2004

The use of a bacteria detection system to evaluate bacterial contamination in PLT concentrates.

BACKGROUND: Random-donor PLTs (RDPs) are functional at 7 days. Nevertheless, since the mid-1980s, concern for bacterial contamination has caused the storage period to be reduced to 5 days. The ability of a bacteria detection system (BDS, Pall) to determine bacterial contamination and permit extension of the PLT shelf life to 7 days was assessed. STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS: Blood was collected into CP2D and leukoreduced RDPs were prepared. Upon arrival at the hospital, a 2- to 3-mL aliquot was removed from each RDP and introduced into the Pall BDS pouch with a sterile docking device. The pouch was incubated at 37 degrees C for 24 hours and then the oxygen content was measured to determine bacterial contamination. Additionally, the RDPs were pooled and an aliquot was removed for culture with standard manual techniques. CCIs were calculated 1 hour after infusion. RESULTS: A total of 12,062 individual RDPs were tested. The Pall BDS detected bacteria in 5 units. All of these were positive on repeat sampling. Propionibacterium acnes, coagulase-negative Staphylococcus, and Bacillus species were confirmed by manual technique in 3 units, one could not be identified, and one was negative. Aliquots from PLT pools were positive in 80 of 2201 pools when tested by manual methods. Of these, 79 were false-positives and 1 unit contained coagulase-negative Staphylococcus. The Pall BDS was easy to use and required less than 5 minutes for all manipulations. After 7 days of storage, the PLTs gave an average CCI of 16 x 10(11)+/- 3.39 x 10(11) 1 hour after transfusion (n = 9). CONCLUSIONS: The Pall BDS permits evaluation of RDPs for bacterial contamination. Culture-negative PLTs were successfully transfused in our institution up to and including 7 days after storage with good CCIs.

Bacillus↗
PubMed2003

Dysregulated expression of IFN-gamma and IL-10 and impaired IFN-gamma-mediated responses at different disease stages in patients with genital herpes simplex virus-2 infection.

Cell-mediated T-helper type-1 (Th1) responses play a vital role in the immunopathogenesis of genital infections caused by herpes simplex virus 2 (HSV-2). We investigated the role of Th responses in HSV-2 infection at different disease stages by analysing the production of Th cytokines in HSV-stimulated peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs). IFN-gamma production decreased over time following a recurrence, whereas levels of IL-10, and to a lesser extent IL-2, remained elevated during this period. In addition, PBMCs from asymptomatic seropositive individuals produced high levels of IFN-gamma and low levels of IL-10, in contrast to individuals with a history of genital ulcers. Following a recurrence, virus copy number in the genital lesions decreased progressively over time, in a manner similar to IFN-gamma production by HSV-2-stimulated PBMCs. Enhanced production of IFN-gamma may modulate HSV replication and B7 expression on monocytic cells of HSV-infected individuals. In contrast to seronegative controls, IFN-gamma failed to enhance B7 expression on monocytic cells of HSV-infected individuals. In addition, monocytic cells from HSV-2-infected individuals with recurrent disease supported greater HSV replication than did those of HSV-infected asymptomatic individuals or seronegative controls. Furthermore, addition of IFN-gamma resulted in enhanced HSV replication in monocytic cells of HSV-infected individuals with recurrent disease, in contrast to the inhibition observed in HSV-seropositive asymptomatic individuals and seronegative controls. Taken together, our results suggest that dysregulated production of IFN-gamma at different disease stages and the impaired ability of monocytic cells to respond to IFN-gamma may play a role in the pathogenesis of recurrent genital herpes disease.

Case-Control Studies↗
PubMed2003

Automated collection of blood components: their storage and transfusion.

The performance of an automated device, the Gambro TRIMA, was evaluated for component production, and an in vivo assessment of the platelets was carried out. Red cell concentrates (RCCs), platelets and plasma were collected and stored according to standard blood bank procedures and evaluated for quality by in vitro measurements. Additionally, single-donor platelets (n=10) were transfused to thrombocytopenic patients after 5 days of storage. Platelet counts were measured after 1 h and the corrected count increment (CCI) was calculated. No significant changes were seen before or after procedure in donor haemoglobin, haematocrit, coagulation factors or platelet count. Return-line samples showed no increase in the level of plasma haemoglobin. Plasma haemoglobin and potassium increased following RBC storage, but there was no change in the red cell number. Platelet aggregation decreased from 52 to 11% (adenosine diphosphate) and the Kunicki morphology score dropped from 379 to 174. Little change was seen in the hypotonic shock response (69-63%) or in the percentage of CD62 expression (4.8-19.8) over time. The CCI averaged 28+/-26 x 10(3) microL(-1) in 10 patients 1 h after transfusion. The TRIMA machine collects RCCs, platelets and plasma in a variety of combinations in one session. For autologous collection, two units of RCC plus platelets can be collected at one time, reducing administrative and testing costs. The platelets have good in vivo recovery, as shown by the CCI values. An added advantage is that the TRIMA machine can be used in hospitals to generate components in times of shortage without the need for a component's laboratory.

Automation↗
PubMed2001

Transfusion-transmitted malaria in Canada.

Three cases of transfusion-transmitted malaria in Canada are described. Although very rare, this diagnosis should be considered in transfusion recipients who have undiagnosed symptoms consistent with malaria. Thick and thin blood smears should be urgently examined to exclude this possibility.

Adult↗
PubMed2001

A novel, automated method of temperature cycling to produce cryoprecipitate.

BACKGROUND: Cryoprecipitate continues to find wide application in transfusion practice. Current AABB standards call for a minimum of 80 units (U) of factor VIII and 150 mg of fibrinogen per bag of cryoprecipitate. However, individual cryoprecipitates can vary greatly in content, with as many as 20 different factors known to affect the yield. STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS: Plasma was processed in a new, rapid, automated device (CryoSeal, Thermogenesis) with computer-controlled temperature cycling to produce cryoprecipitate. RESULTS: In repeat runs (n = 20), the automated procedure yielded a product containing 184 mg of fibrinogen and 158 U of factor VIII in 55 minutes. Additional studies using plasma pools to compare the quality of the machine-generated products to those of traditionally prepared cryoprecipitate showed comparative recoveries of 182 and 187 mg of fibrinogen and 172.1 and 129.7 U of factor VIII and no significant difference in the levels of plasminogen, protein C, or protein S. CONCLUSION: The new system offers an automated method of cryoprecipitate production in which the steps involved in temperature cycling are initiated sequentially, producing within 1 hour a preparation that is equivalent to standard cryoprecipitate.

Cryopreservation↗
PubMed2001

A cross-sectional study of SEN virus in liver transplant recipients.

A new DNA virus, referred to as SEN virus (SEN V), has been isolated and is associated with blood-product transfusion and possibly Non A to Non E hepatitis. We performed a cross-sectional analysis of SEN V in liver transplant recipients at our center. Polymerase chain reaction was used to test for 2 genotypes of SEN V (SEN V:C/H and SEN V:D) in 58 unselected patients. Comparisons were made between SEN V--positive and SEN V--negative groups in terms of age, time posttransplantation, indications for transplantation, serum alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) levels, and cytomegalovirus and Epstein-Barr virus status. Thirty of 58 transplant recipients (51.7%) were SEN V positive; 15.5% were positive for SEN V:C/H, 24.1% for SEN:D, and 12.1% for both strains. No significant differences were found based on primary indication for transplantation, including hepatitis C virus (HCV). Of the 14 of 21 patients with HCV seropositivity and HCV reinfection, 79% were positive for SEN V (P =.02). There was no difference in the proportion of patients with abnormal serum ALT and/or AST levels. A trend for the SEN V--positive group to have a greater mean ALT level (82 v 41 U/L; P =.067) was attributable to the subgroup with HCV recurrence because there was no difference in mean ALT levels (34.9 v 34.5 U/L; P =.968) in non--HCV-infected transplant recipients. Even in the subgroup (n = 14) with recurrent HCV, there was no statistically significant difference in mean ALT levels (140 v 105 U/L; P =.665). Age and cytomegalovirus or Epstein-Barr virus status were not significantly different between the 2 groups, but a significant difference in posttransplantation time was noted (16.8 v 32 months; P =.021). We conclude that SEN V is common among liver transplant recipients but does not appear to cause graft dysfunction as an isolated agent. There is a suggestion that SEN V may be associated with HCV recurrence, but we did not detect biochemical differences attributable to SEN V.

Alanine Transaminase↗
PubMed2001

Preventing the spread of hepatitis B and C viruses: where are germicides relevant?

Hepatitis B virus (HBV) and hepatitis C virus (HCV) are the most prevalent bloodborne pathogens. Infections caused by these organisms can become chronic and may lead to liver cirrhosis and carcinoma. Limited chemotherapy is now available, but only HBV can be prevented through vaccination. Both viruses are enveloped and relatively sensitive to many physical and chemical agents; their ability to survive in the environment may not be as high as often believed. As a result, their spread occurs mainly through direct parenteral or percutaneous exposure to tainted body fluids and tissues. Careful screening of and avoiding contact with such materials remain the most effective means of protection. Nevertheless, the indirect spread of these viruses, although much less common, can occur when objects that are freshly contaminated with tainted blood enter the body or contact damaged skin. Germicidal chemicals are important in the prevention of HBV and HCV spread through shared injection devices, sharps used in personal services (such as tattooing and body piercing), and heat-sensitive medical/dental devices (such as flexible endoscopes) and in the cleanup of blood spills. Microbicides in vaginal gels may also interrupt their transmission. General-purpose environmental disinfection is unlikely to play a significant role in the prevention of the transmission of these viruses. Testing of low-level disinfectants and label claims for such products against HBV and HCV should be discouraged. Both viruses remain difficult to work with in the laboratory, but closely related animal viruses (such as the duck HBV) and the bovine viral diarrhea virus show considerable promise as surrogates for HBV and HCV, respectively. Although progress in the culturing of HBV and HCV is still underway, critical issues on virus survival and inactivation should be addressed with the use of these surrogates.

Animals↗
PubMed2001

Prevalence of hepatitis E virus antibodies in Canadian swine herds and identification of a novel variant of swine hepatitis E virus.

Swine hepatitis E virus is a newly identified potentially zoonotic virus from pigs of particular concern for possible direct transmission to a human xenotransplant recipient by organ transplantation. In the present study, prevalence of serum antibodies to hepatitis E virus was examined in Canadian swine herds. A total of 998 serum samples collected from 6-month-old healthy slaughter hogs were examined by enzyme immunoassay and Western blot analysis for antibodies to the recombinant open reading frame 3 (ORF3) protein of hepatitis E virus expressed in Escherichia coli. These samples represented more than 80 different swine production units from five major swine-producing provinces across Canada. From this study, 594 samples (59.4%) were found to be positive for hepatitis E virus antibody. The seroprevalence was higher in Quebec (88.8%) and Ontario (80.1%) than in Alberta and Saskatchewan (38.3%). By PCR using a pair of oligonucleotide primers deduced from the ORF2 sequence of human hepatitis E virus, a specific hepatitis E virus sequence was recovered from feces of pigs. The nucleotide sequence identity between the U.S. swine hepatitis E virus and the Canadian isolate (SK3) was only 85.8%, suggesting that genotypic variations may exist in swine hepatitis E virus in North America. Among 165 serum samples collected from humans in Saskatchewan, 2.4% were found to be positive for antibodies to the hepatitis E virus ORF3 protein. Our data indicate that hepatitis E virus is highly prevalent in commercial swine populations in Canada and support the suggestion that the swine hepatitis E virus may be an important zoonotic agent for humans.

Animals↗
PubMed2000

Quality assurance of progenitor cell content of apheresis products: a comparison of clonogenic assays and CD34+ enumeration. The Canadian Apheresis Group and Canadian Bone Marrow.

The most common methods used for evaluation of the haematopoietic stem cell content of peripheral blood apheresis products are the colony forming cell assay and the enumeration of CD34+ cells by flow cytometry. The Canadian Apheresis Group and the Canadian Bone Marrow Transplant Group established a multicentre study to compare the reproducibility of colony forming cell assays and CD34+ enumeration by flow cytometry in six transplant centres routinely performing haematopoietic stem cell apheresis. Over a 5-month period in 1996, 31 fresh apheresis samples were shipped by overnight courier for testing at six centres to perform CD34+ enumeration by flow cytometry and clonogenic assays. The mean coefficient of variation and range for the following assays were: cell count 36% (2.6-148%), CFU-GM 82% (46-123%), CD34+ absolute/kg 60% (14-174%) and CD34+ per cent 42% (12-84%). The wide variation in cell count in this pilot study highlights the difficulties related to provision of samples for quality assessment programmes. Results showed poor interinstitutional reproducibility even among selected samples with similar cell counts for both CFC and CD34+ assays demonstrating the need for development and implementation of an interinstitutional quality assurance programme for haematopoietic stem cell assessment. Provision of a reliable source of testing material will be a necessary next step.

Antigens, CD34↗
PubMed2000

Prevalence of GBV-C/hepatitis G virus viremia and anti-E2 in Canadian blood donors.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: GB virus C (GBV-C)/hepatitis G virus (HGV) is a recently recognized parenterally and sexually transmitted agent. The prevalence of GBV-C/HGV markers in Canadian blood donors has not been previously studied and was therefore determined. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Blood donors [identity unlinked (IU), short-term temporarily deferred (STTD) and autologous groups] and donor samples with antibodies to hepatitis C (anti-HCV) or hepatitis B core were tested for GBV-C/HGV RNA and for antibodies to E2 antigen (anti-E2). RESULTS: GBV-C/HGV RNA was found in 1.1% and anti-E2 in 7.3% of the combined IU/STTD donor group. Viremia was much more common in anti-HCV-positive samples (12.5%); anti-E2 was present in >50% of this group. In the STTD group, female gender was significantly associated with viremia. CONCLUSION: GBV-C/HGV infection is relatively common in Canadian donors, and a small proportion are viremic. The association of female gender and viremia was unexpected. Further study is needed to clarify the epidemiology and natural history of GBV-C/HGV infection.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2000

Xenotransplantation and the potential risk of xenogeneic transmission of porcine viruses.

The clinical success of allotransplantation and the shortage of donor organs have led to a proposal for the use of animal organs as alternative therapeutic materials for humans. In that regard, swine are preferable to non-human primates as a source of donor organs. While applications for clinical trials for xenotransplantation have not yet been received in Canada, several trials have already been authorized in the United States. A major concern, however, is the potential for xenogeneic transmission of viruses from animals to humans via organ, tissue, or cellular transplantation or via ex vivo exposure of humans to porcine biologic materials. Xenotransplantation allows viruses to bypass the normal immunological defense mechanisms of the recipient. Furthermore, the use of immunosuppressive drugs following transplantation may facilitate the xenogeneic transmission of zoonotic agents. Of porcine viruses, swine hepatitis E virus does not cause any clinical symptoms in the natural host but is a likely zoonotic agent that can infect humans and cause hepatitis. Porcine circovirus type 1 is prevalent in swine populations with no known association with clinical disease, while circovirus type 2 causes post-weaning multi-systemic wasting syndrome. Porcine endogenous retrovirus is integrated into the host chromosomes while porcine cytomegalovirus undergoes latent infection. Two additional porcine herpesviruses have recently been identified in swine and have been named porcine lymphotrophic herpesviruses. These herpesviruses can potentially become reactivated in human recipients after xenotransplantation. All in all, there are a number of viruses in swine that are of primary concern to screen and eliminate from xenotransplantation protocols. Epidemiology and the current knowledge on xenogeneic risk of these viruses are discussed.

Animals↗