New evidence of the copepod maternal food effects on reproduction.
Failure of female reproductive capacity in the copepod Calanus helgolandicus was related to number and combination of the phytoplankton species in the diets. The maternal food effects were detectable at different levels: fecundity, oogenesis and hatching. Fecundity and hatching were normal with two single (ca. Isochrysis galbana and Prorocentrum minimum) and one mixed (Phaeodactylum tricornutum+Dunaliella tertiolecta+Pavlova lutherii+I. galbana+P. minimum) diets. With the single P. lutherii diet, fecundity decreased, but hatching remained optimal. The daily egg production and hatching rates decreased significantly in females fed the other single P. tricornutum, D. tertiolecta and mixed (P. tricornutum+D. tertiolecta+P. lutherii+I. galbana) diets, or starved. The fecundity decrease coincided with gonad atresia, which was reversible when P. tricornutum and P. lutherii diets were replaced by P. minimum diet. It was irreversible when D. tertiolecta was replaced by P. minimum, leading to female sterilization expressed by the deterioration of OS3 and OS2 oocytes, as a function of the feeding duration. We assume that atresia of female gonads was caused by the limitation of essential nutrients in food, such as fatty acids, which induced catabolism and recycling of yolk reserves and thus, maintenance of gonad integrity and low spawning rates. With the D. tertiolecta diet, abnormally high increase of ornithine concentrations in eggs showed that the ornithine metabolism and polyamine pathway were affected during oogenesis, leading atresia of oocytes to be deeply disturbed and followed up by necrosis of the gonads.