Biomedical subjects

A Pelzer

Publications and source records attributed to A Pelzer.

At least 19 recordsLinked to original sources

PubMed2005

Vascular damage induced by type 2 diabetes mellitus as a risk factor for benign prostatic hyperplasia.

AIMS/HYPOTHESIS: The aim of this study was to evaluate the relationship between benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) and arteriosclerosis shown in a model of type 2 diabetes in a trans-sectional population study using contrast-enhanced colour Doppler ultrasound for exact assessment of prostatic blood flow. METHODS: Contrast-enhanced transrectal colour Doppler ultrasound was performed using a microbubble-based ultrasound enhancer SonoVue for evaluating prostate vascularity (transitional zone [TZ] and peripheral zone [PZ]) in diabetic BPH patients, non-diabetic BPH patients and healthy subjects. Computer-assisted quantification of colour pixel intensity (CPI) was used to objectively evaluate the prostate vascularity. Resistive index measurements were obtained in the TZ and the PZ. Findings were compared between these three groups. RESULTS: TZ-CPI was significantly lower in diabetic patients than in non-diabetic BPH men (p=0.001), whereas the CPI of the PZ showed no difference between these two groups (p=0.978). TZ-CPI of patients with diabetic and non-diabetic BPH were significantly lower than in controls (p<0.001), but no difference was found between diabetic and healthy patients in the PZ (p=0.022) and borderline significance was seen when comparing patients of the BPH group with the control patients (p=0.019). Resistive index values of the TZ in diabetic patients showed significantly higher values (p<0.001) than the BPH and control groups. CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION: The significantly lower CPI and higher resistive index values of the TZ in diabetic patients compared with patients with non-diabetic BPH and healthy subjects indicate considerable vascular damage in the TZ of these patients. Diabetic vascular damage may cause hypoxia and may contribute to the pathogenesis of BPH.

Adult↗

PubMed2002

Interference by toxic metal ions with zinc-dependent proteins involved in maintaining genomic stability.

Metal ions are essential components of biological systems; nevertheless, even essential elements may have toxic or carcinogenic properties. Thus, besides As(III) and Cd(II), also Ni(II) and Co(II) have been shown previously to disturb different types of DNA repair systems at low, non-cytotoxic concentrations. Since some metals exert high affinities for SH groups, we investigated whether zinc finger structures in DNA-binding motifs of DNA repair proteins are potential targets for toxic metal ions. The bacterial formamidopyrimidine-DNA glycosylase (Fpg protein) involved in base excision repair was inhibited by Cd(II), Cu(II) and Hg(II) with increasing efficiencies, whereas Co(II), As(III), Pb(II) and Ni(II) had no effect. Furthermore, Cd(II) still disturbed enzyme function when bound to metallothionein. Strong inhibition was also observed in the presence of phenylselenyl chloride, followed by selenocystine, while selenomethionine was not inhibitory. Regarding the mammalian XPA protein involved in the recognition of DNA lesions during nucleotide excision repair, its DNA-binding capacity was diminished by Cd(II), Cu(II), Ni(II) and Co(II), while Hg(II), Pb(II) and As(III) were ineffective. Finally, the H(2)O(2)-induced activation of the poly(ADP-ribose)polymerase (PARP) involved in DNA strand break detection and apoptosis was greatly reduced by Cd(II), Co(II), Ni(II) and As(III). Similarly, the disruption of correct p53 folding and DNA binding by Cd(II), Ni(II) and Co(II) has been shown by other authors. Therefore, zinc-dependent proteins involved in DNA repair and cell-cycle control may represent sensitive targets for some toxic metals such as Cd(II), Ni(II), Co(II) and Cu(II), as well as for some selenium compounds. Relevant mechanisms of inhibition appear to be the displacement of zinc by other transition metals as well as redox reactions leading to thiol/disulfide interchange.

Cations, Divalent↗

PubMed2002

Interference by toxic metal ions with DNA repair processes and cell cycle control: molecular mechanisms.

Nickel, cadmium, cobalt, and arsenic compounds are well-known carcinogens to humans and experimental animals. Even though their DNA-damaging potentials are rather weak, they interfere with the nucleotide and base excision repair at low, noncytotoxic concentrations. For example, both water-soluble Ni(II) and particulate black NiO greatly reduced the repair of DNA adducts induced by benzo[a]pyrene, an important environmental pollutant. Furthermore, Ni(II), As(III), and Co(II) interfered with cell cycle progression and cell cycle control in response to ultraviolet C radiation. As potential molecular targets, interactions with so-called zinc finger proteins involved in DNA repair and/or DNA damage signaling were investigated. We observed an inactivation of the bacterial formamidopyrimidine-DNA glycosylase (Fpg), the mammalian xeroderma pigmentosum group A protein (XPA), and the poly(adenosine diphosphate-ribose)polymerase (PARP). Although all proteins were inhibited by Cd(II) and Cu(II), XPA and PARP but not Fpg were inhibited by Co(II) and Ni(II). As(III) deserves special attention, as it inactivated only PARP, but did so at very low concentrations starting from 10 nM. Because DNA is permanently damaged by endogenous and environmental factors, functioning processing of DNA lesions is an important prerequisite for maintaining genomic integrity; its inactivation by metal compounds may therefore constitute an important mechanism of metal-related carcinogenicity.

Animals↗

PubMed2000

[Hepatitis B and C: incidence and regional distribution of hospitalizations in Austria].

UNLABELLED: The aim of this study was to describe the incidence as well as the geographical distribution of hospitalizations due to hepatitis B or C (according to ICD 9) in Austria between 1996 and 1998. The data were taken from the MBDS (Minimum Basic Data Set) which contains medical, demographical and administrative recordings of every in-patient treated in an Austrian hospital. Hepatitis B: The mean value of SHR (standardized hospitalization rate) amounted to 3.2/100.000 for the entire area of Austria. Among all Austrian provinces, Vorarlberg yielded the highest regional value (6.4/100.000), Burgenland the lowest one (1.9/100.000). Considerably high regional values of SHR were found in most districts of Vorarlberg, as well as in Vienna and the eastern districts of Lower Austria. Hepatitis C: The mean value of SHR amounted to 8.4/100.000 for the entire area of Austria. Regional SHR values in Austrian provinces ranged widely from 2.9/100.000 (Burgenland) to 15.1/100.000 (Salzburg), some provinces (Salzburg, Carinthia) showed a marked increase of hospitalizations within the observation period. The highest regional values of SHR were found in and around the districts of Salzburg, Villach, and Klagenfurt. CONCLUSIONS: The differences observed in SHR values of Austrian districts cannot be accounted for by local differences of Hepatitis prevalence alone. They are supposedly also due to local differences of the health care system, as well as the clinical, diagnostical or documentational practices in hospitals in different regions. In order to evaluate MBDS-Data quality, a post-hoc comparison with external data stemming from three Austrian multicenter studies was performed. A remarkable correspondence in geographical distribution of hepatitis C patients was found between the two data sets. This is considered an argument in favour of the validity of MBDS-Data.

Austria↗

PubMed2000

[Hospitalizations due to hepatitis A, B and C in Austria 1996-1998].

The aim of this study is to analyse the data of all Austrian in-patients who had been hospitalized between 1996 and 1998 with the main diagnosis "viral hepatitis" (according to ICD 9), in order to present data for epidemiological as well as health-economical considerations. The data used stem from the "Minimum Basic Data Set" (MBDS) which contains medical as well as demographical recordings of every in-patient treated in an Austrian public hospital. Hepatitis A: Values of the standardized hospitalization rate (SHR) ranged from 2.6/100,000 (1998) to 4.7/100,000 (1997). On age classes, the highest values regularly were observed in school-children (7-13/100,000 per year). Significant differences between males and females were not revealed. Among the Austrian federal states, Vienna was found to jut out (6.8/100,000 per year), probably due to its high proportion of immigrants from high-endemic regions. Hepatitis B: Values of SHR were found to be stable with about 3/100,000 per year. On age classes, rates increased rapidly in adolescents, reached the peak in young adults (aged 20 to 29 years: 5/100,000 per year) and, then, decreased slowly. Males were slightly, but not significantly, more affected than females. Interestingly, a respectable number of young children (aged 0 to 4 years) were hospitalized in 1997 and 1998 (1998: 4.4/100,000). Comparing the Austrian federal states, Vorarlberg (6.4/10,000 per year) and Vienna (4.5/100,000 per year) yielded the highest values of SHR. Hepatitis C: In the years observed, values of SHR were ascending successively from 6/100,000 (1996) to 9.7/100,000 (1998). On age classes, the highest risk of hospitalization was found for adults aged between 35 and 74 years (10-20/100,000 per year). Among the Austrian federal states, values of SHR differed considerably; Salzburg (15.1/10,000 per year) and Kärnten (Carinthia) (12.1/100,000 per year) were found to yield the highest values.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1997

STDS in women attending family planning clinics: a case study in Addis Ababa.

For cultural reasons modern contraception has been slow to gain acceptance in Ethiopia. Knowledge about contraception and abortion is still limited in many family and community settings in which it is socially disapproved. By 1990 only 4% of Ethiopian females aged 15-49 used contraception. Little is known of sexually transmitted disease (STD) prevalence in family planning (FP) attenders in Africa in general and Ethiopia in particular, even though attenders of family planning clinics (FPCs) are appropriate target groups for epidemiological studies and control programmes. A study of 2111 women of whom 542 (25.7%) attended FPCs in Addis Ababa showed utilisation rates to be highest in women who were: Tigre (33%) or Amhara (31%), aged 20-34 years (30%), age 16 or older at first marriage/coitus (28%:38% in those first married after 25 years); who had a monthly family income of 10 Ethiopian Birr (EB) or more (33%:36% for those with income 100-500 EB), three or more children (37%), more than five lifetime husbands/sexual partners (39%); or were bargirls (73%) or prostitutes (43%). The seroprevalence rates for all STDs, higher in FPC attenders compared with other women, were syphilis (TPHA) 39%, Neisseria gonorrhoeae 66%, genital chlamydia 64%, HSV-2 41%, HBV 40% and Haemophilus ducreyi 20%. Only 4% of FPC attenders had no serological evidence of STD: 64% were seropositive for 3 or more different STD. Clinical evidence of pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) was also more common in the FPC attenders (54%), 37% having evidence of salpingitis. The FPC provides a favourable setting for screening women likely to have high seroprevalence of STD, who for lack of symptoms will not attend either an STD clinic nor a hospital for routine check up. We recommend that measures be taken to adequately screen, treat and educate FPC attenders, their partners, and as appropriate and when possible their clients, in an attempt to control STDs and ultimately HIV in the community. Social, economic and cultural factors in the occurrence of STDs, prostitution, family planning and modern contraception coverage in Ethiopia are identified and deficiencies of current programmes briefly discussed with the objective of targeting services more effectively.

Cultural Characteristics↗

PubMed1996

Chlamydial infection in a population of Ethiopian women attending obstetric, gynaecological and mother and child health clinics.

The prevalence of chlamydial infection was assessed in 1,846 Ethiopian women attending clinics in Addis Ababa. Sera were tested for type-specific anti-chlamydial antibodies using purified chlamydial antigens (C. trachomatis A-C (CTA-C), C. trachomatis D-K (CTD-K), Lymphogranuloma venereum (LGVI-3), and C. pneumoniae (CPn), in a micro-immunofluorescence (micro-IF) test. Three levels of chlamydial infection were established. Sera with: 1) antibodies to CTA-C, CTD-K, LGV 1-3 and CPn singly or in combination, are considered as evidence of overall exposure to chlamydial species (OEC); 2) antibodies to CTD-K and LGV 1-3 are considered as evidence of exposure to genital chlamydial pathogens (GENCI); 3) IgM titre > or = 1/8, or Ig G titre > or = 1/64 to CTD-K and LGV 1-3 alone or at a similar level with antibodies to CTA-C and CPn is considered as being evidence of active genital chlamydial infection (AGCI). OEC was found in 84 pc, GENCI in 60 pc and AGCI in 42 pc. Infection was highest in family planning and lowest in antenatal clinic attenders. OEC increased progressively with age while GENCI and AGCI peaked at ages 35 to 49. Chlamydial infection was highest in those married and sexually active < 13 years of age (OEC 88 pc, GENCI 69 pc, AGCI 49 pc); the lowest income groups (OEC 85 pc, GENCI 65 pc, AGCI 45 pc); those with more than five sexual partners (OEC 92 pc, GENCI 78 pc and AGCI 65 pc); with highest prevalence in bargirls (OEC 97 pc, GENCI 84 pc, AGCI 75 pc). Fifty pc had clinical evidence of past or present infection in the urethra, salpinges or bartholin glands (USB). OEC, GENCI and AGCI were associated with PID. The association of seropositivity with USB was remarkably similar for both gonorrhoea and chlamydial infection: we recommend adoption of a treatment regimen effective for both infections. The micro-IF test is a useful epidemiological tool for identifying the of antibodies to chlamydial pathogens. Use of antigen pools CTA-C, CTD-K LGVI-3 and CPn enables a distinction to be made between genital and non-genital infections. The problem of symptomatic and asymptomatic chlamydial disease needs to be addressed urgently.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1994

A socioeconomic, clinical and serological study in an African city of prostitutes and women still married to their first husband.

The aim of this paper was to compare women involved in prostitution with a group of women still married to their first husband and reporting having had only one sexual partner, in order to ascertain what factors if any contributed to women going into prostitution or staying still married to their first husband, their only sexual partner, and thereafter to compare clinical and serological aspects of the gynaecological conditions of the women in these two groups. The role of prostitutes in transmission of sexually transmitted diseases (STD) is widely recognised. Socioeconomic factors determining whether a woman will drift into prostitution or have a stable first marriage are largely unknown as are prevalence rates of STD, pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) and cervical cancer in these women. A socioeconomic, clinical and serologic study is reported for 2111 Ethiopian women attending teaching hospitals and maternal and child health clinics in Addis Ababa, analysing basic demographic data of three groups of women: (i) 278 engaged in prostitution, (ii) 730 still married to their one and only sexual partner, and (iii) 1103 single, widowed, divorced or married to their second or subsequent partner. Thereafter groups (i) and (ii) were compared and contrasted with regard to further socioeconomic, clinical and serological associations. The most significant socioeconomic associations for women in prostitution were low income (95% had < 50 Ethiopian birr [< U.S. $25] per month), ethnic group, and the timing of first coitus in relation to the menarche (81% were first married by age 15), in that order. Women still married to their first sexual partner had higher income, higher age at first marriage and longer duration of marriage. Sero-prevalence rates of STD in prostitutes were high: gonorrhoea 88%, genital chlamydiae 78%, syphilis (TPHA) 62%, HSV2 and HBV 46%, and chancroid 19%: 67% had PID and 2.9% cervical cancer. In comparison, rates for women married to their first and only sexual partner were: gonorrhoea 40%, genital chlamydiae 54%, syphilis (TPHA) 19%, HSV2 33%, HBV 35%, chancroid 13%, PID 47% and cervical cancer 1%. While the very high prevalence of STD in women involved in prostitution is not so unexpected, the high rate of STD in women still married to their first and only sexual partner is indicative of male promiscuity. Control of prostitution and diseases spread by it, together with education of both men and women is a national priority.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1994

Teenage obstetric and gynaecological problems in an African city.

OBJECTIVE: To measure the prevalence of sexually transmitted diseases (STD), pelvic inflammatory disease (PID), cervical cancer, pregnancy and use of contraception in teenagers, and to determine socioeconomic factors associated with these conditions to aid planners of medical services and promotion of sexual health. SUBJECTS: 181 Ethiopian teenagers and 1,845 women aged 20 to 45 years for comparison. SETTING: Gynaecological outpatient department, antenatal, postnatal and family planning clinics, in two teaching hospitals and a mother and child heath centre in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. METHODS: Results of serologic tests for STD, clinical evidence of PID, and cervical cytology were analysed against socio-economic factors. RESULTS: In teenagers early age at first marriage/coitus, more common in those of rural origin, was associated with poverty, a greater number of lifetime sexual partners, and prostitution: 40 pc were first sexually active before the menarche. Prevalence of seropositivity to specific STD pathogens was; Treponema pallidum (TPHA) 21 pc, Neisseria gonorrhoeae (gonococcal antibody test: GAT) 40 pc, genital chlamydiae 51 pc, hepatitis B virus 36 pc, herpes simplex virus (HSV-2) 32 pc, and Haemophilus ducreyi 16 pc: 92 pc of teenagers were seropositive to one or more STD's. STD seroprevalence was higher in those with more than one sexual partner, those sexually active by age 15 (very high in those sexually active by age 12), those involved in prostitution and those attending the family planning clinic. Forty three pc had clinical evidence of PID; one married at age 10 had invasive cervical cancer by age 18; 40 pc of teenagers were pregnant compared with 25 pc of those aged 20 to 45; 21 pc attended for family planning; of regular FPC attenders 81 pc were GAT seropositive. CONCLUSION: Despite legislation early age of sexual debut is common, STD and PID are widely prevalent, the pregnancy rate in adolescents is high and contributes to the national population growth rate. Action is required at family, medical and governmental level to encourage cultural acceptance that marriage and sexual activity should not occur before the age of 16 years, with education appropriate to culture to prevent STD. Similar studies are recommended in other countries to establish a baseline for informed strategy regarding prevention of STD and health education.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1992

A study of cervical cancer in Ethiopian women.

In common with many African countries, Ethiopia has a very limited cytological service, smears are only taken in a hospital or clinic setting and until very recently most had to be sent abroad for analysis. We describe the results of a clinical and cytological investigation of 2111 women attending hospitals and clinics in Addis Ababa: 33 invasive or microinvasive cancers and 10 dysplasias (CIN) were detected. The prevalence of invasive cervical cancer in that population was 15.6/1000. Risk factors were shown to be age over 35 (especially over 50), parity over six (especially more than 10), very low income or subsistence economy, particularly in those from the rural areas, and prostitution. Less significant factors, possibly related to age, were sexual activity of more than 20 years and first coitus before the age of 15; and more than five sexual partners. Most (66%) of women with invasive cancer were at stage 3 or 4.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1992

Seroepidemiological and socioeconomic studies of genital chlamydial infection in Ethiopian women.

OBJECTIVE: To measure the prevalence of chlamydial genital infection in Ethiopian women attending gynaecological, obstetric and family planning clinics; to identify the epidemiological, social and economic factors affecting the prevalence of infection in a country where routine laboratory culture and serological tests for chlamydial species are unavailable; to determine the risk factors for genital chlamydial infection in those with serological evidence of other sexually transmitted diseases. SUBJECTS: 1846 Ethiopian women, outpatient attenders at two teaching hospitals and a mother and child health centre in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. SETTING: Gynaecological outpatient department, antenatal, postnatal and family planning clinics. METHODS: Sera were tested for type-specific anti-chlamydial antibodies using purified chlamydial antigens (C. trachomatis A-C (CTA-C), C. trachomatis D-K (CTD-K), Lymphogranuloma venereum (LGV1-3), and C. pneumoniae (CPn)), in a micro-immunofluorescence test. The genital chlamydia seropositivity was analysed against patient's age, clinic attended, ethnic group, religion, origin of residence, age at first marriage and first coitus, income, number of sexual partners, duration of sexual activity, marital status/profession, obstetric and contraceptive history, and seropositivity for other sexually transmitted diseases. RESULTS: Overall exposure to chlamydia species was found in 84%, genital chlamydial infection in 62%, and titres suggestive of recent or present genital infection in 42% of those studied. Genital chlamydial infection was highest (64%) in family planning and lowest (54%) in antenatal clinic attenders. Exposure to genital chlamydia species was influenced by ethnic group and religion. Those married and sexually active under 13 years of age had greater exposure (69%) to genital chlamydial infection than those first sexually active aged over 18 (46%). Prevalence of infection was highest in those with more than five sexual partners (78%) and in bargirls (84%). The lowest income groups had a higher prevalence (65%) of genital chlamydial infection than the wealthiest (48%). Multivariate analysis showed the most important factors to be age at first coitus, religion, prostitution and present age of the woman in that order. Risk for genital chlamydial infection was increased in those with seropositivity for syphilis, gonorrhoea, HSV-2 but not HBV infection. CONCLUSION/APPLICATION: Chlamydial genital infections are highly prevalent in both symptomatic and asymptomatic Ethiopian women. The high prevalence of infection reported reflects a complexity of socioeconomic factors: very early age at first marriage and first coitus, instability of first marriage, subsequent divorce and remarriage or drift into prostitution, all of which are influenced by ethnic group, religion and poverty--together with transmission from an infected group of prostitutes by promiscuous males to their wives, lack of diagnostic facilities and inadequate treatment of both symptomatic and asymptomatic men and women. The problem of chlamydial disease in Ethiopia needs to be addressed urgently in the context of control of STD.

Adult↗

PubMed1991

Seroepidemiological study of gonorrhoea in Ethiopian women. 1. Prevalence and clinical significance.

OBJECTIVE: To measure the prevalence of gonorrhoea in Ethiopian women attending gynaecologic, obstetric and family planning clinics: to determine the reliability of patient self history of sexually transmitted disease (STD); to correlate the serological diagnosis of gonorrhoea with clinical evidence of pelvic infection in order to define a reliable clinical diagnosis of gonorrhoea in a country where pelvic inflammatory disease is very common but where routine laboratory culture and serological tests for gonorrhoea are unavailable. SUBJECTS: 1851 Ethiopian women: 50% symptomatic, 50% asymptomatic. SETTING: Gynaecological outpatient department, antenatal, postnatal and family planning clinics (Ethiopian Family Guidance Association (EFGA)), in two teaching hospitals and a mother and child health centre in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. METHODS: The indirect haemagglutination test with gonococcal pilus antigen as an epidemiological tool was used in a cross-section study to screen 1851 sera for evidence of past or current gonococcal infection. The gonococcal antibody test (GAT) seropositivity was correlated with patient's history of STD, age, clinic attended and the clinical evidence of infection in "gonococcal target organs" urethra, salpinges or Bartholin glands. RESULTS: Fifty nine per cent of the study group were seropositive for the gonococcal antibody test, 22% with titres greater than or equal to 1/320, indicative of current, recent or recurrent infection. Seropositivity indicating past or present gonococcal infection was highest in those who gave a history of having had treated syphilis (85%), in women aged 40-49 (72%), and family planning attenders (EFGA) (66%) of whom 31% had titres greater than or equal to 1/320. Fifty per cent had clinical evidence of past or present infection in the urethra, salpinges or Bartholin glands. Gonococcal antibodies were present in 54% of women with no evidence of clinical infection, compared with 91% of those with pyosalpinx and 86% of those with triple infection of urethra, salpinges and Bartholin glands. CONCLUSION: The high prevalence of gonococcal antibodies in Ethiopian women, especially in asymptomatic clinic attenders must be of concern for all health workers especially those in gynaecology and obstetrics and the related disciplines of family planning and neonatal paediatrics. While seropositivity was highest in those giving a past history of syphilis, the patient's history of STD was unreliable, as of those who denied having any history of STD, fifty per cent were GAT seropositive. Despite a high correlation between GAT seropositivity with pyosalpinx and clinical evidence of infection in urethra, salpinges and bartholin glands, gonococcal antibodies were present in 54% of women with no clinical evidence of infection. Thus we were unable to define a diagnostic clinical picture of gonorrhoea in Ethiopian women.

Adult↗

PubMed1991

Seroepidemiological study of gonorrhoea in Ethiopian women. 2. Socioeconomic picture.

OBJECTIVES: To determine aetiological factors associated with the prevalence of gonorrhoea in Ethiopian women to enable subsequent formulation of intervention policies. SUBJECTS: 1851 Ethiopian women: 50% symptomatic, 50% asymptomatic. SETTING: Gynaecological outpatient departments, antenatal, postnatal and family planning clinics (Ethiopian Family Guidance Association (EFGA)), in two teaching hospitals and a mother and child health centre in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. METHODS: Using the indirect haemagglutination test with gonococcal pilus antigen, sera were tested for the presence of gonococcal antibodies indicating past or present infection. The socioeconomic facts were analysed against gonococcal seropositivity of these women. RESULTS: Gonococcal infection was associated with very early age at first marriage and first coitus, more than one sexual partner and marital status/profession. The highest prevalence and titres were found in bargirls (100%) prostitutes (89%) and sellers of local beer (85%). The lowest prevalence and titres were found in the highest income group, those married over the age of 18 years, those with only one husband or sexual partner, and those with a sexual life of less than 5 years duration. CONCLUSIONS: National measures which could contribute to reduction and control of gonorrhoea include effective raising of the age of first marriage and first coitus, as has already been defined by law; the education of all girls up to fifth grade or equivalent; the provision of financial support to prevent widows and divorcees from drifting into prostitution; regular health checks and treatment of prostitutes; and education of men. While gonorrhoea per se is a major public health problem, our findings must have serious implications in the wider context of possible transmission of HIV through the community.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1990

First coitus before menarche and risk of sexually transmitted disease.

The prevalence of sexually transmitted disease (STD), pelvic inflammatory disease (PID), and cervical cancer, and the relation between these conditions were studied in 2111 Ethiopian women. Early sexual activity was associated with an increase in prevalence rates of STD and PID; possible aetiological factors include physical and immunological immaturity of the female genital tract and the number of sexual partners.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1981