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Biomedical subjects

Arnold Schecter

Publications and source records attributed to Arnold Schecter.

At least 19 recordsLinked to original sources
PubMed2007

Polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) levels in livers of U.S. human fetuses and newborns.

Polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) brominated flame retardants have recently been found to contaminate humans in the United States and other countries. U.S. human breast milk and blood levels of PBDEs are presently the highest in the world. U.S. cord blood samples tested positive for PBDEs, but until now there have been no peer-reviewed published data concerning levels of PBDEs in human tissue prior to and immediately after birth. Liver tissues were obtained from 4 stillborn fetuses and 7 liveborn infants, ranging from 20.5 to 39 wk gestational age; only 2 of the liveborn infants lived longer than 4 h and none were formula-fed or nursed, so tissue levels reflect intrauterine PBDE intake only. All samples were contaminated with PBDEs. Levels varied from 4 to 98 ppb, lipid. The mean level was 23.1 and the median 15.2 ppb, lipid. PBDE levels did not increase with gestational age. These data document the transfer of PBDEs from maternal to fetal tissue. PBDE concentrations are somewhat lower than those reported in adult blood or breast milk. The health consequences of prenatal contamination are not clear at present.

Environmental Pollutants↗
PubMed2006

Dioxins: an overview.

This review article summarizes what is known about human health following exposure to dioxins. It is meant primarily for health professionals but was also written with the general public in mind. The need for such an article became apparent to the authors following media inquiries at the time the then Ukraine presidential candidate Victor Yushchenko was deliberately poisoned with the most toxic dioxin, tetrachlorodibenzodioxin or TCDD.

Adipose Tissue↗
PubMed2006

Agent Orange, dioxins, and other chemicals of concern in Vietnam: update 2006.

OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to find sites in Vietnam where there was human exposure from Agent Orange herbicide sprayed between 1962 and 1971, as determined by congener-specific measurement of dioxins, including 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzodioxin (TCDD), the dioxin that contaminated Agent Orange, in blood. METHODS: Blood was collected from residents of eight heavily sprayed regions in the south of Vietnam and analyzed for TCDD and in some cases the dioxin-like dibenzofurans and dioxin-like PCBs. RESULTS: Six of the eight newly studied sites did not show substantial or any elevated TCDD in blood. Marked elevation of TCDD in Vietnamese blood was found in one new location with a suggestion of slightly elevated TCDD in a second location. CONCLUSIONS: In newly studied locations in Vietnam, we found some persons with elevation of TCDD consistent with exposure to dioxin from Agent Orange. In our previous studies, we found PCBs, PCDDs, and PCDFs as well as pesticides in human milk, blood, or in food. Health effects from Agent Orange need to be differentiated from effects caused by chemicals other than TCDD from Agent Orange.

2,4,5-Trichlorophenoxyacetic Acid↗
PubMed2006

Dioxin exposure and benign prostatic hyperplasia.

OBJECTIVE: Dioxins decrease prostate weight, reduce androgen responsiveness, and inhibit prostate morphogenesis in rats. We assessed the association of dioxins and benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) in participants in the National Health and Nutritional Examination Survey 1999-2000. METHODS: Forty-two participants were classified as having BPH and 99 were classified as controls. Dioxin exposure was expressed as dioxin toxic equivalents (TEQ). Age, body mass index, waist circumference, race/ethnicity, smoking, physical activity, and education were assessed as potential confounders. RESULTS: After age adjustment, men without BPH had 20.9% higher TEQs (95% confidence interval [CI] = 5.4-38.7%) as compared with men with BPH. On weighted, multivariate, logistic regression analyses, men with higher dioxin levels had lower odds of having BPH (odds ratio = 0.22, 95% CI = 0.08-0.62). CONCLUSIONS: Dioxin exposure in the general population may be associated with decreased odds of BPH. Our study findings need to be confirmed.

Aged↗
PubMed2006

Serum dioxin, testosterone, and subsequent risk of benign prostatic hyperplasia: a prospective cohort study of Air Force veterans.

BACKGROUND: Operation Ranch Hand veterans were involved in spraying herbicides, including Agent Orange, during the Vietnam War in 1962-1971; Agent Orange was contaminated with 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD). It has been hypothesized that dioxins may be partially responsible for an increase of male reproductive tract disorders such as testicular cancer, cryptorchidism, and hypospadias. OBJECTIVES: In this study, our objective was to assess the effect of serum TCDD concentration on the risk of development of benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) and on serum testosterone levels. METHODS: This study was a longitudinal, prospective cohort study made up of U.S. Air Force veterans involved in Operation Ranch Hand. Other Air Force veterans who did not spray herbicides were included as comparisons. BPH was determined by medical record review and by medical examinations conducted during the study. Data were available for 971 Ranch Hand and 1,266 comparison veterans. We investigated the relationship between BPH and serum TCDD level using the Cox proportional hazards models adjusted for testosterone levels, body mass index (BMI), and the percentage change in BMI per year. RESULTS: In univariate and multivariate analyses, the risk of BPH decreased with increasing serum TCDD in the comparison group. The multivariate risk ratio for BPH in the comparison group was 0.84 (95% confidence interval, 0.73-0.98). Excluding men with prostate cancer, inflammatory or other prostatic diseases did not substantially alter the association. Serum testosterone levels were inversely associated with serum TCDD levels in both Ranch Hand and comparison groups. CONCLUSIONS: TCDD exposure at general population levels is associated with a decreasing risk of BPH with higher exposure levels. TCDD exposure is also negatively associated with serum testosterone levels.

Dioxins↗
PubMed2006

Polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) levels in an expanded market basket survey of U.S. food and estimated PBDE dietary intake by age and sex.

OBJECTIVES: Our objectives in this study were to expand a previously reported U.S. market basket survey using a larger sample size and to estimate levels of PBDE intake from food for the U.S. general population by sex and age. METHODS: We measured concentrations of 13 polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) congeners in food in 62 food samples. In addition, we estimated levels of PBDE intake from food for the U.S. general population by age (birth through > or = 60 years of age) and sex. RESULTS: In food samples, concentrations of total PBDEs varied from 7.9 pg/g (parts per trillion) in milk to 3,726 pg/g in canned sardines. Fish were highest in PBDEs (mean, 1,120 pg/g; median, 616 pg/g; range, 11.14-3,726 pg/g). This was followed by meat (mean, 383 pg/g; median, 190 pg/g; range, 39-1,426 pg/g) and dairy products (mean, 116 pg/g; median, 32.2 pg/g; range, 7.9-683 pg/g). However, using estimates for food consumption (excluding nursing infants), meat accounted for the highest U.S. dietary PBDE intake, followed by dairy and fish, with almost equal contributions. Adult females had lower dietary intake of PBDEs than did adult males, based on body weight. We estimated PBDE intake from food to be 307 ng/kg/day for nursing infants and from 2 ng/kg/day at 2-5 years of age for both males and females to 0.9 ng/kg/day in adult females. CONCLUSION: Dietary exposure alone does not appear to account for the very high body burdens measured. The indoor environment (dust, air) may play an important role in PBDE body burdens in addition to food.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2005

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in U.S. computers and domestic carpet vacuuming: possible sources of human exposure.

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), a type of brominated flame retardant chemically and toxicologically similar to polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), are a class of emerging environmental and human contaminants. They have recently been detected in U.S. milk, blood, and food at the highest levels in the world. This pilot study was undertaken with the aim of determining levels of PBDE in the U.S. indoor environment, to assess the potential exposure to PBDEs from computer surfaces and carpets. Food of animal origin is the usual source of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxin (PCDD), polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDF), and PCBs in humans, but there may also be environmental sources for intake of PBDEs. It was also our aim to characterize the PBDE congener profile in these indoor environmental samples. Four computer wipe samples and 9 domestic vacuum-sweeping samples were analyzed for 13 PBDE congeners, PBDEs 17 (2,2',4), 28 (2,4,4'?), 47 (2,2',4,4'?), 66 (2,3',4,4'?), 77 (3,3',4,4'?), 85 (2,2',3,4,4'?), 99 (2,2'4,4',5), 100 (2,2',4,4',6), 138 (2,2',3,4,4',5'?), 153 (2,2',4,4',5,5'?), 154 (2,2',4,4',5,6'?), 183 (2,2',3,4,4',5',6), and 209 (2,2',3,3',4,4',5,5',6,6'?). All samples tested positive for PBDEs. PBDE 209 was the dominant congener in all 4 computer wipe samples and in 7 out of the 9 vacuum dust samples. The congener profiles observed in this study varied considerably, a finding that has been observed previously. However these congener profiles differ from the pattern seen in U.S. human milk, human blood and in food, where PBDEs 47 and 99 predominate.

Computers↗
PubMed2005

Polybrominated diphenyl ether flame retardants in the U.S. population: current levels, temporal trends, and comparison with dioxins, dibenzofurans, and polychlorinated biphenyls.

Brominated flame retardants have come into common use in the United States during the past 3 decades. This study reports levels of polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) flame retardants in blood from the U.S. population at the present time and 30 years previously and also current human milk levels. This is also the first study to report measured congeners and dioxin toxic equivalents (TEQs) of dioxins, dibenzofurans, and dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) from archived, 1973, blood and compare them with current levels. The findings indicate there have been significant changes in levels of each class of these persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in U.S. human blood. Although dioxin, dibenzofuran, and PCB levels are markedly higher in the 1973 blood, the opposite is true for PBDEs. Furthermore, unlike dioxins, dibenzofurans, and PCBs, which increase with age, there was no significant correlation found in our study between PBDE levels and age. Current total PBDE levels in U.S. blood are the highest reported worldwide to date, with 2 pooled samples (N = 100 each) measuring 61.7 and 79.7 parts per billion (ppb) lipid, and in a series of 39 individual analyses, the range was 4.6 to 365.5 ppb with a median of 29 ppb and a mean of 52.6 ppb. The median for women in this study was 43.3 ppb, and for men it was 25.1 ppb. Although women have a higher level of PBDEs in blood than men, in our study, this is not statistically significant. Blood levels are similar to levels in U.S. human milk from 59 women, 6.2 to 418.8 ppb lipid. Levels of PBDE in pooled 2003 serum are far higher at 61.7 ppb than in 1973 archived pooled serum in which almost no PBDEs were quantified, although the estimated level using half the detection limit for nondetects was 0.77 ppb. Although no human health studies have been conducted on PBDEs, they are of concern because in vivo and in vitro animal studies show nervous system, reproductive, developmental, and endocrine effects, as well as cancer in high-dose studies.

Adult↗
PubMed2005

Did TCDD exposure or service in Southeast Asia increase the risk of cancer in air force Vietnam veterans who did not spray agent orange?

OBJECTIVE: We sought to examine cancer incidence in 1482 Air Force veterans who served in Southeast Asia (SEA) and who were not occupationally exposed to herbicides. METHODS: Cancer incidence between 1982 and 2003 was determined by record review and Cox proportional hazards models were used to estimate risk ratios across serum 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) and years served in SEA categories. RESULTS: All sites cancer risk increased with TCDD (relative risk = 1.6, 95% confidence interval = 1.2-2.2). The risk of prostate cancer increased with years of SEA service but not with TCDD. TCDD and years of SEA service interacted with all sites cancer; the risk was greatest in those with the highest TCDD levels and the longest time served in SEA. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest nonoccupational exposures to TCDD or other factors while in SEA may contribute to cancer risk in these veterans.

Adult↗
PubMed2004

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers contamination of United States food.

Elevated levels of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), a type of brominated flame retardant, were recently detected in U.S. nursing mothers' milk. These halogenated compounds chemically and toxicologically resemble others such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), whose route of intake is almost exclusively through food of animal origin. This study is the first to report the levels of PBDEs in U.S. foods in a market basket survey of 30 food types (total of 32 food samples) from three major supermarket chains in Dallas, TX. Food samples were almost exclusively foods of animal origin: meat, fish, and dairy products. Thirteen PBDE congeners were measured for each sample. Levels were then compared to existing PBDE food studies from other countries where available. In this study, levels of PBDEs are highest in fish, then meat, and lowest in dairy products; median levels were 1725 (range 8.5-3078), 283 (range 0.9-679), and 31.5 (0.2-1373), parts per trillion (ppt), or pg/g, wet weight, respectively. Nonfat milk did not have any detectable PBDE levels. In fish, PBDE congener 47 (2,2',4,4'-tetraBDE) contributes up to 70% of the total PBDEs, followed by congeners 100 (2,2',4,4',6) and 99 (2,2',4,4',5). In meat congener 99 predominates, followed by 47. In dairy, BDE 47 predominates followed by 99. U.S. food PBDE levels measured in this study are higher than reported in two other published market based studies from Spain and Japan. Although these findings are preliminary and will be updated with analyses of new samples, they suggest that food is a major route of intake for PBDEs.

Dairy Products↗
PubMed2004

Environmental exposure to PCBs and cancer incidence in eastern Slovakia.

In a population-based cross-sectional study, we compared serum levels of 15 polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) congeners and three organochlorine pesticides in residents of two districts in eastern Slovakia, one with extensive environmental contamination from a former PCB production site (Michalovce) and the other matched on geography but with low (background) levels (Svidnik). The age-adjusted geometric means for sum of 15 measured PCB congeners were statistically significantly higher in subjects from the Michalovce district for both sexes: 3327.6 versus 1331.4 ng/g of lipid in males, 2751.8 versus 992.2 ng/g of lipid in females. Levels of DDE and DDT were also significantly higher, although the absolute differences were less pronounced. There was no substantial difference in HCB levels between the districts. We also conducted an ecologic study to compare cancer incidence occurring in these same two districts from 1985 through 1994. We calculated standardized incidence ratios (SIRs) and 95% confidence intervals for each district using indirect standardization and rates from eastern Slovakia. Among males from Michalovce (exposed), but not Svidnik (unexposed), there was an excess of cancer of the tongue (SIR=1.46; 1.06-1.96), stomach (SIR=1.15; 1.00-1.32), lung (SIR=1.14; 1.04-1.24), testis (SIR=1.40; 0.97-1.97), and kidney (SIR=1.23; 0.98-1.52), and lower than expected incidence of prostate cancer (SIR=0.83; 0.69-0.97); in contrast, there was an excess of peritoneal (SIR=3.05; 1.11-6.63) and laryngeal cancer (SIR=1.43; 0.99-1.98) in Svidnik not observed Michalovce. Among females from Michalovce, but not Svidnik, there was an excess of cancer of the lip (SIR=2.54; 1.53-3.96), stomach (SIR=1.22; 1.02-1.44), and lung (SIR=1.17; 0.94-1.45); in contrast, there was an excess of kidney (SIR=1.61; 1.03-2.40) and thyroid (SIR=1.97; 1.12-3.20) cancer in Svidnik not observed in Michalovce. Taken together, these results raise the possibility that high environmental exposure to organochlorines in the Michalovce district may be associated with higher rates of certain cancers, particularly stomach and lung cancer.

Age Factors↗
PubMed2004

The use of potassium dichromate and ethyl alcohol as blood preservatives for analysis of organochlorine contaminants.

The "gold standard" for preserving and shipping of human tissue samples for analysis of organochlorine contaminants is freezing. This method can be difficult, costly if using heavy dry ice for shipping, and often unfeasible, especially in less developed countries where electricity and dry ice are frequently rare or absent. Therefore, it is essential that more convenient and practical methods for preservation of blood samples are found. As an alternative to freezing, there have been studies employing potassium dichromate as a preservative for human or cow's milk or ethyl alcohol preservation of blood for dioxin analysis. In this study, four methods were compared to investigate the effectiveness of ethyl alcohol and potassium dichromate as blood preservatives for analysis of dioxins, dibenzofuran, and polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) congeners. Samples of whole blood from a Dallas, Texas hospital were collected and pooled. Freezing, ethyl alcohol in two concentrations (20% and 40% per volume of sample), and potassium dichromate were used for blood preservation. The blood samples containing potassium dichromate or ethyl alcohol were stored and sent to ERGO laboratory for dioxin analysis and comparison with results from the frozen sample, which was kept frozen at all times until analyzed. This study suggests that potassium dichromate is a suitable alternative to freezing for preservation of whole blood for dioxin, dibenzofuran, and PCB measurements when either lipid or wet weight based results are reported. Potassium dichromate tablets were very easy and convenient to use--two 100 mg tablets (with a dichromate content of about 33 mg each) were added to each bottle containing 65 ml of blood. However, ethyl alcohol at 20% and 40% concentration under the conditions of this pilot study and the analytical method employed did not appear to provide satisfactory preservation when lipid based results are given or when the fat content has to be determined (wet or whole weight). Further research with a larger number of samples, inclusion also of other groups of persistent organic pollutants such as organochlorine pesticides or brominated flame retardants, a longer duration of storage time, and at temperatures greater than US or German room temperature is indicated in order to recommend the routine use of potassium dichromate as preservative for whole blood intended for dioxin, dibenzofuran, and PCB analysis.

Blood Preservation↗
PubMed2004

Human consumption of methyleugenol and its elimination from serum.

Under a mandate from the U.S. Congress, the National Toxicology Program (NTP) of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services conducts animal bioassays for carcinogenicity of potentially toxic chemicals to which the U.S. population might be exposed. Methyleugenol, a natural as well as synthesized substance, was nominated for study because it is structurally similar to safrole, a known animal carcinogen. Methyleugenol was found to be a very potent multisite carcinogen in male and female F344/N rats and B6C3F1 mice at all doses tested in 2-year NTP bioassays using gavage dosing. For this reason, human toxicokinetic studies were added to the traditional NTP protocol. A commercial brand of gingersnaps was found by chemists at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention to contain a relatively high concentration of methyleugenol. After thorough scientific and clinical review, and approval by a National Institutes of Health institutional review board for the protection of human subjects, a study was conducted with nine healthy adult male and female human volunteers. The volunteers were given 12 gingersnaps for breakfast. Blood was drawn immediately before the meal and at 15, 30, 60, and 120 min afterward. The mean +/- SD fasting level of methyleugenol in serum was 16.2 +/- 4.0 pg/g wet weight. Peak blood levels were found at 15 min (mean +/- SD, 53.9 +/- 7.3 pg/g wet weight), followed by a rapid decline; the half-life of elimination was about 90 min. The peak levels were within the range of methyleugenol blood levels in the U.S. population, as measured concurrently in a subset of nonfasting participants in the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES III).

Administration, Oral↗
PubMed2004

Effect of proximity to hazardous waste sites on the development of congenital heart disease.

The authors sought to determine whether the risk of congenital heart disease (CHD) was greater for the children of mothers who lived close to a hazardous waste site (HWS) than for those who lived farther away. All cases (n = 1283) of confirmed CHD, and a random sample of 2,292 controls, born in Dallas County, Texas, from 1979-1984 were linked with 276 HWSs present during the study. The authors ascertained locations of households and determined the distance to the nearest HWS. They obtained odds ratios (ORs) for CHD. A 20% increased risk for CHD was found in association with maternal residence within 1 mile of an HWS (OR = 1.2, 95% confidence interval = 1.1-1.4). The results of this study suggests that a statistically significant additional risk for CHD is associated with maternal proximity to an HWS.

Adult↗
PubMed2003

Dioxin, dibenzofuran, and polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) levels in food from Agent Orange-sprayed and nonsprayed areas of Laos.

During the Vietnam War, a phenoxy-herbicide mixture called Agent Orange, which was contaminated with 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzodioxin, or TCDD, was used primarily for destruction of forest and other foliage in order to prevent enemy troop movement and protect American and allied troops and military bases in the south of Vietnam. Smaller areas of Laos and Cambodia were also sprayed with Agent Orange between 1962 and 1971 from fixed-wing aircraft. In 2001, 28 food samples consisting of meat, fish, and dairy products were collected in sprayed and nonsprayed areas of Laos and analyzed for dioxins, dioxinlike dibenzofurans, and selected polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) congeners by high-resolution gas chromatography/high-resolution mass spectrometry at laboratories in Germany and Canada. Low levels of dioxin and other dioxinlike substances were found in Laotian food, similar to levels present in recent exported Vietnamese food to United States. Vietnam is geographically adjacent to Laos. Total dioxin toxic equivalent (TEQ) levels were similar in samples from sprayed and non-sprayed areas, ranging from 0.009 to 0.851 pg/g or parts per trillion (ppt) in sprayed Sepone, and from 0.022 to 0.537 pg/g or ppt wet weight in non sprayed Vientiane. However, the Laotian fish samples from the Agent Orange-sprayed area had, on average, a higher proportion of total TEQ from TCDD (31.7% vs. 9.4%) compared to the nonsprayed area. Some other food items, duck eggs and pork liver from Sepone, also had severalfold higher TCDD levels than similar food samples from Vientiane, 0.029 vs. 0.011 pg/g and 0.070 vs. 0.004 pg/g wet weight, respectively. There were no substantial differences in levels of dibenzofuran and PCB congeners. In general, elevated TCDD levels were not found in Laotian food samples. It is possible that dioxin-contaminated areas, or "hot spots," exist in Laos as they do in Vietnam, although they have not yet been identified.

2,4,5-Trichlorophenoxyacetic Acid↗
PubMed2003

Dioxin, dibenzofuran, and coplanar PCB levels in Laotian blood and milk from agent orange-sprayed and nonsprayed areas, 2001.

Agent Orange, a phenoxyherbicide contaminated with 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD), was used by American military forces during the United States-Vietnam war between 1962 and 1971 primarily as a defoliant to destroy forests where enemy troops might find cover. Agent Orange was used mainly in Vietnam, but also to a lesser extent in Laos and Cambodia. In Laos, there have been no prior studies of TCDD contamination from Agent Orange, despite known defoliation and documented records of Agent Orange spraying. This article presents findings of TCDD in human blood and milk from two geographic areas in Laos: Vientiane, a nonsprayed area, and Sepone, an Agent Orange-sprayed area. German and Canadian laboratories used high-resolution gas chromatography-mass spectrometry to measure 7 dioxin, 10 dibenzofuran, and 4 non-ortho or coplanar polychlorinated biphenyls in Laotian blood and milk samples. Most subjects tested in this Laos Ministry of Health Study showed low dioxin and dibenzofuran levels, consistent with what would be expected in a primarily rural nonindustrial country. These findings are consistent with relatively low dioxin and dibenzofuran levels recently found in food from these same areas. The chemically and toxicologically related non-ortho PCBs were measured but were found at low levels compared to specimens from other countries, presumably because of less industrialization and industrial pollution in Laos.

2,4,5-Trichlorophenoxyacetic Acid↗
PubMed2003

Are Vietnamese food exports contaminated with dioxin from Agent Orange?

In this study the levels of dioxins and dioxinlike compounds, dibenzofurans, and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) were measured in food exported from Vietnam to the United States. In the past, some Vietnamese fish was found to be contaminated with dioxin, 2,3,7,8-TCDD, or TCDD, from Agent Orange. U.S. commercial catfish farmers recently claimed that exported Vietnamese food, especially catfish, was contaminated with dioxin from Agent Orange and was thus a matter of concern to the U.S. Congress. In 2001, twenty-two exported Vietnamese food samples (mostly fish) were purchased in the United States and Laos to evaluate possible contamination with dioxin from Agent Orange. Dioxin, dibenzofuran, and coplanar PCB congeners were measured by high-resolution gas chromatography-high-resolution mass spectrometry by laboratories in Germany and Canada certified for dioxin analysis by the World Health Organization (WHO). In the current study, only low levels of dioxins and dioxinlike compounds were present in all exported Vietnamese food analyzed, despite recent findings of elevated levels of one dioxin, 2,3,7,8-TCDD, from Agent Orange exposure in some Vietnamese individuals, presumably due to food consumption. It appears unlikely that exported Vietnamese food is, in general, contaminated with large amounts of dioxin (TCDD) from Agent Orange or other sources. Further food sampling from areas of heavy Agent Orange spraying in Vietnam is warranted to map out where the source of TCDD contamination of food may be originating.

2,4,5-Trichlorophenoxyacetic Acid↗