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Biomedical subjects

B A Gower

Publications and source records attributed to B A Gower.

At least 37 records · Page 2Linked to original sources
PubMed1999

Do hormonal indices of maturation explain energy expenditure differences in African American and Caucasian prepubertal children?

OBJECTIVE: To examine the relationships between hormonal indices of maturation and total, resting and physical activity-related energy expenditure (TEE, REE and AEE) in African American and Caucasian prepubertal children. DESIGN: Cross-sectional study. SUBJECTS: Sixty-four African American and 48 Caucasian prepubertal children. MEASUREMENTS: TEE (by doubly labeled water), REE (by indirect calorimetry), fat mass and fat-free mass (by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry), fasting serum dehydroepiandrosterone-sulfate (DHEAS), androstenedione, and estrone-sulfate (by radioimmunoassay). RESULTS: Serum concentrations of hormones correlated significantly with REE and TEE (r values range from 0.33 to 0.76, P<0.001). Only androstenedione correlated significantly with AEE (r = 0.23, P<0.05). However, these correlations were no longer significant after adjusting energy expenditure components for fat-free mass. In multiple regression models, ethnicity was not a significant determinant of any energy expenditure component after adjusting for body composition and hormone concentrations. CONCLUSION: Hormonal indices of maturation do not influence energy expenditure in this group of African American and Caucasian prepubertal children.

Analysis of Variance↗
PubMed1999

Relation between visceral fat and disease risk in children and adolescents.

This review examines whether the relations and metabolic parameters necessary for the development of syndrome X are present in children and whether the metabolic complications of obesity in children are explained by excess intraabdominal adipose tissue (IAAT), or visceral fat. Despite the limited use of imaging techniques in research studies, an increasing number of studies reported on IAAT and its relation to disease risk in children and adolescents. For this article we reviewed studies that documented the early accumulation of IAAT in children and adolescents and the factors that contribute to variation in the degree of IAAT accumulation. We also reviewed studies that showed the clinical relevance of IAAT in children and adolescents through significant relations with adverse health effects including dyslipidemia and glucose intolerance in obese and nonobese children and adolescents of different ethnic groups.

Journal Article↗
PubMed1999

Visceral fat, insulin sensitivity, and lipids in prepubertal children.

In adults, visceral fat accumulation is associated with insulin resistance and dyslipidemia. The cause-and-effect nature of these relationships is not clear. The objective of the present study was to determine if similar relationships exist in prepubertal children. Specifically, we determined whether visceral fat was associated with fasting insulin, insulin sensitivity (Si), serum triglyceride (TG) concentration, or serum HDL cholesterol (HDL-C) concentration; whether visceral fat or Si was independently related to lipids; and whether ethnicity influenced the relationship between visceral fat and risk factors. Subjects were 61 prepubertal African-American and Caucasian children. Total body fat was determined by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry, visceral fat by computed tomography, and insulin sensitivity by the tolbutamide-modified, frequently sampled intravenous glucose tolerance test with minimal modeling. In multiple linear regression analysis (adjusting for total fat, sex, and ethnicity), visceral fat was independently related to TG (P < 0.05) and fasting insulin (P < 0.001), but not Si (P = 0.425). Total body fat was independently related to Si (P < 0.001). Si was independently related to fasting insulin (P < 0.001) but not to TG or HDL-C (P = 0.941 and 0.201, respectively). Si in African-Americans was 42% lower than in Caucasians (0.50 +/- 0.05 vs. 0.86 +/- 0.11 x 10(-5) min(-1) x pmol(-1) x l, mean +/- SE after adjusting for total fat, P < 0.001). Nonetheless, ethnicity was not independently related to either TG or HDL-C (P = 0.075 and 0.619, respectively, after adjusting for total and visceral fat and sex). The slopes of the relationships of total and visceral fat with risk factors did not differ with ethnicity. In conclusion, visceral fat appears metabolically unique in children, being independently associated with elevated TG and insulin but not Si. Obese children and African-American children were more insulin resistant, independent of visceral fat accumulation. Lower Si was associated with higher, faster insulin, but not dyslipidemia. Thus, obesity, visceral fat accumulation, and ethnicity in children may confer negative, but independent, health risks.

Adipose Tissue↗
PubMed1998

Relationships between dietary fat, body fat, and serum lipid profile in prepubertal children.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of the study was to test the hypothesis that dietary fat components were associated with the serum lipid profile independent of ethnicity, body fat, and fat distribution in prepubertal children. RESEARCH METHODS AND PROCEDURES: Sixty-six children (45 African American and 21 Caucasian), aged from 4 to 10 years, were recruited into the study. Dietary total fat, saturated fat, monounsaturated fat, and polyunsaturated fat were estimated by averaging two 24-hour diet recalls. Fasting serum triacylglycerol, total cholesterol, and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol were analyzed, and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) was calculated by the method of Friedewald. Body composition and fat distribution were measured by dual energy X-ray absorptiometry and computed tomography. RESULTS: Children in both ethnic groups tended to overreport their dietary intake relative to total energy expenditure by 18%. African American children consumed more energy from total fat (35.3% vs. 31.5%, p<0.05), saturated fat (13.7% vs 12.2%, p<0.05), protein (16.4% vs. 13.2%, p=0.02), and less from carbohydrate (48% vs. 57.1%, p<0.01) than Caucasian children. There was no significant correlation between dietary fat and either serum lipids or body fat indices after adjusting for nonfat energy intake and total lean tissue mass. Total body fat (r=0.32), subcutaneous abdominal adipose tissue (r=0.39), and intra-abdominal adipose tissue (r=0.42) were positively related to serum triacylglycerol; these associations remained significant in a multiple linear regression model in which body fat indices were adjusted for ethnicity, total lean tissue, dietary total fat, and nonfat intake. DISCUSSION: Our results do not support a link between dietary fat and serum lipids; instead, our data suggest that body fat may play a more important role than dietary fat in the course of cardiovascular disease development in prepubertal children.

Adipose Tissue↗
PubMed1998

Prediction of intra-abdominal and subcutaneous abdominal adipose tissue in healthy pre-pubertal children.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the relationship of intra-abdominal adipose tissue (IAAT) and subcutaneous abdominal adipose tissue (SAAT) with body composition and anthropometry in children. DESIGN: Cross-sectional data analysis. SUBJECTS: 113 healty Caucasian and African-American, pre-pubertal children aged 4-10 y. MEASUREMENTS: IAAT and SAAT by single slice computed tomography at the level of the umbilicus; total fat and trunk fat by dual energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA); anthropometric evaluation by skinfolds and circumferences. RESULTS: IAAT was most strongly correlated with abdominal skinfold (r = 0.88) and trunk fat by DEXA (r = 0.87), and SAAT with trunk fat by DEXA (r = 0.96), total fat by DEXA (r = 0.93) and waist circumference (r = 0.93). In stepwise regression, IAAT was best predicted by trunk fat from DEXA, total fat from DEXA, and abdominal skinfold (R2 = 0.85); SAAT was best predicted by trunk fat from DEXA, body weight, waist circumference and abdominal skinfold (R2 = 0.96). In the absence of DEXA data, IAAT was best predicted by abdominal skinfold, ethnicity and subscapular skinfold (R2 = 0.82) and SAAT was best predicted by waist circumference subscapular skinfold, height and abdominal skinfold (R2=0.92). The prediction equations with and without DEXA were successfully cross-validated in an independent sample of 12 additional measures of IAAT and SAAT. CONCLUSION: These data provide useful information that can help in the interpretation of anthropometric data with regard to body fat distribution. IAAT and SAAT can be accurately estimated in Caucasian and African-American prepubertal children from anthropometry with and without the availability of DEXA data.

Abdomen↗
PubMed1998

Fat distribution and plasma lipid-lipoprotein concentrations in pre- and postmenopausal women.

OBJECTIVE: In the postmenopausal years, women develop a central pattern of fat distribution and an increased risk of developing cardiovascular disease (CVD). The possibility that these events are related has not been extensively investigated. The object of the present study was to test the hypotheses that, 1) menopause-related differences in lipids are associated with greater estimated intra-abdominal adiposity, and 2) the relationship between individual adipose depots and plasma lipids differs with menopausal status. DESIGN: Cross-sectional. SUBJECTS: 141 healthy pre- and postmenopausal women aged 35-65 y. MEASUREMENTS: Total body fat by hydrodensitometry was used as an index of whole-body adiposity, the sum of five central skinfold measurements as an index of subcutaneous upper-body adiposity, and estimated intra-abdominal adipose tissue (IAF) as an index of visceral adiposity. Fasting plasma concentrations of total cholesterol (total-C), high- and low-density-lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C, LDL-C), and triglycerides were used as indices of CVD risk. RESULTS: Postmenopausal women had greater total body fat (P < 0.001), summed central skinfolds (P < 0.01), estimated IAF (P < 0.001), higher plasma concentrations of total-C (P < 0.001), LDL-C (P < 0.001) and triglycerides (P < 0.001), than premenopausal women. The relationship between central skinfolds and LDL-C differed with menopausal status, being significant in pre- but not postmenopausal women. Adjustment for estimated IAF with analysis of covariance decreased menopause-related differences in levels of total-C, LDL-C and triglycerides by approx 40-70%. CONCLUSION: These observations suggest that, 1) menopause-related changes in IAF may adversely affect the plasma lipid profile, and 2) menopausal status affects the relationship between central subcutaneous fat and LDL-C. Studies with measured IAF are needed to confirm present results.

Adipose Tissue↗
PubMed1998

Longitudinal changes in fatness in white children: no effect of childhood energy expenditure.

Reduced energy expenditure may predispose children to the development of obesity, but there are limited longitudinal studies to support this theory. We studied 75 white, preadolescent children over 4 y by taking annual measures of body composition and resting energy expenditure (by indirect calorimetry) and two annual measures of total energy expenditure and physical-activity-related energy expenditure (by doubly labeled water). Body composition of parents was assessed at the onset of the study with use of underwater weighing. The major outcome variable was the individual rate of change in fat mass (FM) adjusted for fat-free mass (FFM). The influence of sex, energy expenditure components, initial FM, and parental FM on the rate of change in FM was analyzed by hierarchical linear modeling and analysis of variance. The rate of change in absolute FM was 0.89 +/- 1.08 kg/y (range: -0.44 to 5.6 kg/y). The rate of change in FM adjusted for FFM was 0.08 +/- 0.64 kg/y (range: -1.45 to 2.22 kg/y) and was similar among children of two nonobese parents and children with one nonobese or one obese parent, but was significantly higher in children with two obese parents (0.61 +/- 0.87 kg/y). The major determinants of change in FM adjusted for FFM were sex (greater fat gain in girls), initial fatness, and parental fatness. None of the components of energy expenditure were inversely related to change in FM. The main predictors of change in FM relative to FFM during preadolescent growth are sex, initial fatness, and parental fatness, but not reduced energy expenditure.

Adipose Tissue↗
PubMed1998

Fat distribution and insulin response in prepubertal African American and white children.

Ethnic differences in obesity-related disease prevalence may relate to differences in fat distribution or metabolism. We conducted a study in 73 African American and white children to examine the relation between fat distribution and insulin and to determine whether ethnic differences in fat distribution or in adiposity-insulin relations contribute to differences in insulin concentrations. Fasting and postchallenge insulin concentrations were determined by oral-glucose-tolerance test, total body fat by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry, and subcutaneous abdominal (SAAT) and intraabdominal (IAAT) adipose tissue by computerized tomography. African Americans had greater fasting insulin (x +/- SD: 79 +/- 37 compared with 55 +/- 23 pmol/L, P < 0.01), incremental 30-min insulin (567 +/- 438 compared with 300 +/- 304 pmol/L, P < 0.001), and incremental area under the insulin curve (AUC; 262 +/- 209 compared with 164 +/- 156 pmol/L, P < 0.01). In multiple linear regression, fasting insulin was independently related to total fat within both ethnic groups (model R2 = 0.42 and 0.52 for African Americans and whites, respectively), incremental 30-min insulin to total fat and IAAT in whites only (model R2 = 0.71), and AUC to SAAT in African Americans only (model R2 = 0.49). Adjusting insulin indexes for adiposity did not eliminate the significant effect of ethnicity. In general, relations between adiposity and insulin were stronger in whites than in African Americans. African American children had higher insulin concentrations than white children after total body fat, IAAT, and SAAT were controlled for. However, strong relations between adiposity (total and abdominal) and insulin in both groups suggest that obesity may contribute to disease risk regardless of ethnicity.

Adipose Tissue↗
PubMed1998

Influence of sex, seasonality, ethnicity, and geographic location on the components of total energy expenditure in young children: implications for energy requirements.

BACKGROUND: There are limited data on the influence of body composition, sex, seasonality, ethnicity, and geographic location on the components of energy expenditure in children. OBJECTIVE: The objective was to examine the determinants of total energy expenditure (TEE), resting energy expenditure (REE), and activity-related energy expenditure (AEE) in children. DESIGN: Cross-sectional data from 232 children (4-10 y of age) from 4 ethnic groups (white American, African American, Guatemalan Mestizo, and Native American Mohawk) were examined. RESULTS: In 104 white children studied in Vermont and Alabama, TEE was significantly higher in spring than in fall, higher in boys than in girls, and higher in children in Vermont (all effects: approximately 0.42 MJ/d, P < 0.05). The significant effect of sex was explained through REE; the influences of season and location were explained through AEE. In all children, there was no effect of sex but a significant effect of ethnicity (P < 0.01) on TEE: a significant effect of sex (P < 0.01) and no effect of ethnicity (P = 0.16) on REE; and no effect of sex and a significant effect of ethnicity on AEE. The significant effects of ethnicity were due to lower values in Guatemalan children. TEE correlated most strongly with weight (r = 0.81) and fat-free mass (r = 0.79-0.81); REE with weight (r = 0.85) and fat-free mass (r = 0.80-0.87); and AEE with maximal oxygen consumption (r = 0.54), fat-free mass (r = 0.50), and fat mass (r = 0.49). CONCLUSIONS: 1) Season and location influenced TEE in children through their effects on AEE, 2) a higher REE in boys was consistent across all groups examined, 3) Guatemalan children had lower TEE due to a lower AEE, 4) body weight may be the best predictor of TEE, and 5) maximal oxygen consumption was the strongest marker of AEE.

Anthropometry↗
PubMed1998

Total, resting, and activity-related energy expenditures are similar in Caucasian and African-American children.

There is some evidence to suggest that ethnic differences in energy expenditure in adults may modulate different propensities for obesity. However, there is lack of data for the components of energy expenditure in young children of different ethnic backgrounds. In this study, we examined total energy expenditure (TEE), resting energy expenditure (REE), and physical activity-related energy expenditure (AEE) in healthy prepubertal Caucasian (18 girls, 21 boys) and African-American (29 girls, 30 boys) children. TEE was measured over 14 days under free-living conditions with the doubly labeled water technique, REE was from indirect calorimetry after an overnight fast, and AEE was estimated from the difference between TEE and REE after reducing TEE by 10% to account for the thermic effect of feeding. Fat mass (FM) and fat-free mass (FFM) were measured by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry. There were no significant effects of ethnicity or gender on TEE after adjustment for FFM or for both FFM and FM. For REE, there was no effect of ethnicity, but a significant effect of gender, with a higher REE in boys after adjustment for FFM and FM (P < 0.001). For AEE, there were no significant effects of ethnicity or gender after adjustment for FFM or for FFM and FM. In conclusion, ethnicity was not a significant determinant for any of the components of energy expenditure. TEE, REE, and AEE were similar in Caucasian and African-American prepubertal children after adjustment for FFM or for FFM and FM.

Basal Metabolism↗
PubMed1998

Spontaneous testicular regression in collared lemmings (Dicrostonyx groenlandicus) exposed to prolonged long photoperiod.

Reproductive maturation and attainment of maximal gonadal size in collared lemmings (Dicrostonyx groenlandicus) is facilitated by transfer from a short photoperiod (8 h light: 16 h dark) to a long photoperiod (22 h light:2 h dark). However, reproductive maturation in lemmings born in 22 h light:2 h dark is impeded by exposure to the natal photoperiod of 22 h light:2 h dark. Data from adult lemmings suggest that prolonged exposure to a long photoperiod of 20 h light:4 h dark results in gonadal regression. The present experiments were conducted to test the hypothesis that adult lemmings exposed to a prolonged long photoperiod undergo testicular regression. Male collared lemmings were transferred at weaning (19 days of age) from the natal photoperiod of 8 h light:16 h dark to one of two long photoperiods: 22 h light:2 h dark or 24 h light:0 h dark (constant light). Gonadal mass was maximal in both groups 10 weeks after weaning. However, 20 weeks after weaning, gonadal mass in both groups was low (relative to that at 10 weeks), suggesting that regression had occurred. When testes mass was maximal 10 weeks after weaning, animals were transferred in groups from 22 h light:2 h dark to one of several shorter photoperiods: 20 h light:4 h dark, 18 h light:6 h dark, 16 h light:8 h dark, or 8 h light:16 h dark. Testes mass 20 weeks after weaning was greatest, that is, not different from maximal, in animals from the 20 h light:4 h dark and 18 h light:6 h dark groups, intermediate in animals from the 16 h light:8 h dark group, and low in animals from the 8 h light:16 h dark group. These observations indicate that transfer from 22 h light:2 h dark to a slightly shorter photoperiod permits maintenance of gonadal size, but transfer to a short photoperiod causes testicular regression. Body weight, bifid claw width and pelage colour did not change during spontaneous gonadal regression in animals housed in a long photoperiod for 20 weeks. These results suggest that prolonged exposure to an unchanging long photoperiod causes spontaneous testicular regression, and that photoperiod regulates reproductive and somatic parameters independently.

Animals↗
PubMed1998

Developmental changes in energy expenditure and physical activity in children: evidence for a decline in physical activity in girls before puberty.

OBJECTIVE: To examine individual changes in energy expenditure and physical activity during prepubertal growth in boys and girls. METHODS: Total energy expenditure (TEE), resting energy expenditure, physical activity-related energy expenditure, reported physical activity, and fat and fat-free mass were measured three times over 5 years in 11 boys (5.3 +/- 0.9 years at baseline) and 11 girls (5.5 +/- 0.9 years at baseline). RESULTS: Four-year increases in fat ( approximately 6 kg) and fat-free mass ( approximately 10 kg) and resting energy expenditure ( approximately 200 kcal/day) were similar in boys and girls. In boys, TEE increased at each measurement year, whereas in girls, there was an initial increase from age 5.5 (1365 +/- 330 kcal/day) to age 6.5 (1815 +/- 392 kcal/day); however, by age 9.5, TEE was reduced significantly (1608 +/- 284 kcal/day) with no change in energy intake. The gender difference in TEE changes over time was explained by a 50% reduction in physical activity (kcal/day and hours/week) in girls between the ages of 6.5 and 9.5. CONCLUSIONS: These data suggest a gender dimorphism in the developmental changes in energy expenditure before adolescence, with a conservation of energy use in girls achieved through a marked reduction in physical activity.

Basal Metabolism↗
PubMed1997

Visceral fat in white and African American prepubertal children.

The objectives of this study were 1) to examine interrelations among intraabdominal adipose tissue (IAAT) and other adiposity indexes, 2) to identify a visceral obesity index that is independent of total adiposity, and 3) to examine sex and ethnic (white compared with African American) differences in IAAT. We measured IAAT and subcutaneous abdominal adipose tissue (SAAT) using computed tomography, and total fat mass (FM) by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry in a heterogenous sample of 101 children aged 7.7 +/- 1.6 y weighing 33.2 +/- 12.6 kg. IAAT was highly variable (mean +/- SE; 31 +/- 22 cm2; range: 7-107 cm2) and related to SAAT (r = 0.87) and FM (r = 0.81). The regression slope between IAAT and SAAT was significantly lower in African Americans (0.17 +/- 0.02 cm2 IATT/cm2 SAAT) than in whites (0.23 +/- 0.02 cm2 IAAT/cm2 SAAT). Within each ethnic group there was no effect of sex on IAAT adjusted for SAAT (mean +/- SE: 40.2 +/- 3.1 and 43.2 +/- 2.7 cm2 in white boys and girls, respectively; 26.4 +/- 1.9 and 25.1 +/- 1.6 cm2 in African American boys and girls, respectively). We conclude that in children 1) there is wide variation in visceral fatness; 2) IAAT relative to SAAT is an index of visceral fat, independent of FM, allowing examination of the unique effects of IAAT; and 3) the relative distribution of adipose tissue in the intraabdominal compared with the subcutaneous abdominal region is significantly lower in African Americans than in whites.

Absorptiometry, Photon↗
PubMed1997

Maximal aerobic capacity in African-American and Caucasian prepubertal children.

The purpose of this study was to examine differences in resting, submaximal, and maximal (VO2max) oxygen consumption (VO2) in African-American (n = 44) and Caucasian (n = 31) prepubertal children aged 5-10 yr. Resting VO2 was measured via indirect calorimetry in the fasted state. Submaximal VO2 and VO2max were determined during an all out, progressive treadmill exercise test appropriate for children. Dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry was used to determine total fat mass (FM), soft lean tissue mass (LTM), and leg soft LTM. Doubly labeled water was used to determine total energy expenditure (TEE) and activity energy expenditure (AEE). A significant effect of ethnicity (P < 0.01) was found for VO2max but not resting or submaximal VO2, with African-American children having absolute VO2max approximately 15% lower than Caucasian children (1.21 +/- 0.032 vs. 1.43 +/- 0.031 l/min, respectively). The lower VO2max persisted in African-American children after adjustment for soft LTM (1.23 +/- 0.025 vs. 1.39 +/- 0.031 l/min; P < 0.01), leg soft LTM (1.20 +/- 0.031 vs. 1.43 +/- 0.042 l/min; P < 0.01), and soft LTM and FM (1.23 +/- 0.025 vs. 1.39 +/- 0.031 l/min; P < 0.01). The lower VO2max persisted also after adjustment for TEE (1.20 +/- 0.02 vs. 1.38 +/- 0.0028 l/min P < 0.001) and AEE (1.20 +/- 0.024 vs. 1.38 +/- 0.028 l/min; P < 0.001). In conclusion, our data indicate that African-American and Caucasian children have similar rates of VO2 at rest and during submaximal exercise, but VO2max is approximately 15% lower in African-American children, independent of soft LTM, FM, leg LTM, TEE, and AEE.

Absorptiometry, Photon↗
PubMed1997

Serum leptin and energy expenditure in children.

Leptin has been hypothesized to play an important role in energy balance by affecting both energy intake and energy expenditure. The purpose of our study was to determine the relationship between fasting serum leptin concentrations and measures of energy expenditure in prepubertal children. We measured total energy expenditure (TEE; by the doubly labeled water technique), resting energy expenditure (REE; after an overnight fast), activity energy expenditure (AEE; TEE-REE), body composition (by dual energy x-ray absorptiometry), and fasting serum leptin concentration (by RIA) in 76 children. Simple correlations showed that all measures of energy expenditure (TEE, REE, and AEE) were positively related to the serum leptin concentration (r = 0.50, P < 0.001; r = 0.45, P < 0.001; and r = 0.30, P < 0.01, respectively). However, after adjusting for body composition (fat-free mass and fat mass), gender, and ethnicity, serum leptin concentrations were not related to any measure of energy expenditure (TEE, P = 0.61; REE, P = 0.97; AEE, P = 0.65). These latter findings were further confirmed using structural equation models with leptin and energy expenditure as dependent variables, and fat-free mass and fat mass as independent variables. Results from these models showed no direct effect of leptin and no indirect effect of fat mass (through leptin) on any measure of energy expenditure, when a path between fat mass and energy expenditure was present in the model. Thus, our data do not support the hypothesis that the serum leptin concentration (independent of fat mass) is related to measures of energy expenditure in children.

Adipose Tissue↗
PubMed1997

Effects of gender, ethnicity, body composition, and fat distribution on serum leptin concentrations in children.

The Ob protein leptin has been shown to be closely correlated with measures of body fat in humans and animals. Studies have suggested that there are both gender and ethnic differences in serum leptin concentrations, even after controlling for total and relative body fat and body mass index. We hypothesized that gender and ethnic differences in serum leptin concentrations are due to differences in both body composition and body fat distribution. We measured fasting serum leptin concentration, body composition (fat mass and fat-free mass by dual energy x-ray absorptiometry), and body fat distribution (intraabdominal and sc abdominal adipose tissue by computed tomography) in 74 prepubertal boys and girls (43 African-Americans and 31 Caucasians). Our results showed that gender differences in serum leptin concentrations could not be fully explained by differences in body mass index, total fat mass, or relative body composition. However, when serum leptin concentrations were adjusted for differences in relative body composition (fat mass and fat-free mass) and body fat distribution (sc and intraabdominal adipose tissue), gender no longer had an independent effect on the serum leptin concentration. Serum leptin concentrations were not influenced by ethnicity. Thus, when comparing group differences in serum leptin concentrations, it is necessary to adequately control for group differences in body composition and fat distribution.

Adipose Tissue↗