What is refreshing? An investigation of the color and other sensory attributes of refreshing foods and beverages.
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Beverages↗
Biomedical subjects
D A Zellner
Publications and source records attributed to D A Zellner.
Food liking and craving: A cross-cultural approach.
Spanish and American participants rated how much they liked three common sweets and three common beverages listed on a questionnaire. They also named the food or drink for which they had the strongest craving. Cross-cultural comparisons in liking were almost always consistent with cross-cultural comparisons in rates of exposure. In both cultures, among subjects whose cravings could be so classified more females (about 5/8) craved sweet foods than savories and more males (about 5/8) craved savories than sweets. Among sweet cravers, chocolate craving was much more frequent for American females (44.6%) than for American males (17.4%), but no such gender difference occurred for the Spaniards (28.6 and 22.2%). The results argue for a possible physiological basis for the gender differences in sweet/savory craving but against a physiological basis for chocolate craving.
Adult↗
The effect of color intensity and appropriateness on color-induced odor enhancement.
Coloring solutions has been shown to increase perceived odor intensity. In Experiment 1, subjects rated the odor intensity of red strawberry and green mint solutions that had four levels of color intensity. Ratings of strawberry odor peaked at the medium color intensity and ratings of mint odor increased monotonically with color intensity. Thus, color-induced odor enhancement can increase with increasing color intensity but need not. Experiment 2 found that the color intensities producing maximum odor enhancement in Experiment 1 are not always the ones perceived as most appropriate for the odorants. Using different odors, Experiment 3 found that color intensity has some influence on the strength of the color-induced odor enhancement and color appropriateness has little. The presence or absence of color in the solution seems to be the most important variable.
Adult↗
Influence of color on odor identification and liking ratings.
The effects of color on odor identification were tested under color appropriate, inappropriate, and blindfolded conditions. Subjects made fewer errors in identifying solutions that were colored appropriately (e.g., red-cherry) than in either the blindfolded condition, where there were no color cues, or the inappropriate color condition (e.g., red-lemon). Identification accuracy was greatest for typical odor-color combinations (e.g., red-cherry) compared with appropriate but nontypical odor-color combinations (e.g., red-watermelon). Response latencies were fastest for odors in the appropriately colored solutions. Subjects also rated appropriate color-odor combinations as most pleasant. However, this effect is probably due to the increase in identification accuracy of the appropriately colored solutions. In all three conditions, correctly identified odors were liked more than odors that were not correctly identified. Thus, color is an important perceptual variable in odor identification because it biases subjects toward a color category that facilitates identification if the color is "correct". This ability to identify an odor in turn influences the affective response to the odor.
Adult↗
Color affects perceived odor intensity.
In Experiment 1, some odorous solutions (e.g., strawberry) were rated as smelling stronger when colored (e.g., red) than when colorless. Experiment 2 showed this effect to be due to a perceptual change rather than a response to experimental demand characteristics. Experiment 3 showed that the color-induced increase in odor intensity is not due to subjects' preexperimental experience with particular color-odor combinations, because the increase occurred with novel ones. We conclude that color induces a weak olfactory percept that combines with odorant-induced percepts. The effect may be due to conditioning or may be the result of residual intersensory neural connections left over from infancy.
Adult↗
Effects of eating abnormalities and gender on perceptions of desirable body shape.
Men and women differ when choosing the figure drawings that most resemble (a) their own current figures (CURRENT), (b) their ideal figures (IDEAL), and (c) the figure thought most attractive to the opposite sex (OPPOSITE) (Fallon & Rozin, 1985). In the present experiment, women with high Eating Attitude Test (EAT) scores, indicating abnormal eating patterns, choose differently from those with low scores. All women's IDEAL and OPPOSITE figures are thinner than their CURRENT figures, whereas men rate all three nearly identically. Only the high-scoring women choose an IDEAL figure thinner than their OPPOSITE. This suggests that whereas men are satisfied with their figures, women desire to be thinner than they think they are, and women with abnormal eating behaviors desire to be even thinner than what they think men find attractive.
Adult↗
Effect of temperature and expectations on liking for beverages.
Three experiments investigated the influence of expectation on liking ratings of beverages at different temperatures. The first confirmed the general belief that people like certain beverages at certain familiar temperatures and dislike them at others. In the second experiment, subjects tasted and rated how much they liked four beverages (chicken bouillon, red wine, fruit punch and water) at three different temperatures (hot, room temperature, and cold) with their eyes closed (beverages not identified by the experimenter) and with their eyes open (beverages identified by the experimenter). They then rated how much they thought they would like these same beverages plus a number of new beverages at the three temperatures. Subjects rated the tastes of the beverages at unfamiliar temperatures (e.g., cold bouillon) when tasting them better than they thought they would. However, even after a few opportunities to taste a beverage at an unfamiliar temperature, expectations about its taste did not change. Experiment 3 successfully altered liking ratings of beverages by changing expectations concerning the temperature at which an unfamiliar beverage is typically consumed. The results argue for an important role for culture-based expectations in determining preferred temperatures for foods.
Adult↗
Rats learn to like the taste of morphine.
When rats are forced to drink a morphine solution as their only source of fluid, they eventually reverse their initial preference and drink more morphine than water in a two-bottle preference test. The cause of this shift in preference was examined with the taste reactivity test which involves the analysis of fixed action patterns elicited by taste solutions infused into rats' mouths. Three morphine concentrations and two levels of motivation were studied. A greater percentage of ingestive taste reactivity responses occurred to the oral morphine infusion in morphine-raised rats than in water-raised rats. These data argue against the idea that enhanced morphine ingestion is caused by anticipation of positive consequences. Instead, they support the idea that rats come to "like" the flavor of the morphine solution; in other words, the palatability evaluation of the morphine changes, possibly through an association between the flavor and the hedonically positive effects of the morphine.
Animals↗
Opiate withdrawal: the result of conditioning or physiological mechanisms?
Although it has been suggested that opiate withdrawal responses might be conditioned compensatory responses elicited by drug-associated stimuli, the present results do not support such a view. Withdrawal, as measured by an aversion to a saccharin solution following the termination of morphine administration, occurred independent of the presence of morphine-paired environmental or temporal cues. These results suggest that withdrawal is most likely the result of some physiological mechanism, rather than the result of conditioning.
Animals↗
The effect of post-conditioning exposure to morphine on the retention of a morphine-induced conditioned taste aversion.
In the following experiment, multiple injections of morphine sulfate following the acquisition of a morphine-induced taste aversion had no effect on the retention of the previously acquired aversion. Post-conditioning injections of morphine resulted in the development of physical dependence to morphine and led to a decrement in the ability of morphine to induce a subsequent aversion to a second novel taste. This failure of post-conditioning exposures to morphine to affect a previously acquired morphine-induced taste aversion even though tolerance to morphine had occurred was discussed in the context of Rescorla's event-memory model of conditioning.
Animals↗
The role of endorphins in animal learning and behavior.
The present review examined the influence of endorphins in animal learning and behavior. It was suggested that in learning paradigms involving stress, the stressor elicits the release of endorphins. Given the evidence on endorphin-mediated, stress-induced analgesia, it was further suggested that the stress-induced release of endorphins modulates the aversiveness of the stressor, and as such, affects the learning based on this stressor. A number of learning paradigms, e.g., the conditioned emotional response, preference for signaled shock, conditioned taste aversions, and learned helplessness, were presented in support of this mediation of learning by the endorphins. A possible interaction between the endorphins and adrenocorticotropic hormone was offered as a physiological basis for this mediation.
Adrenocorticotropic Hormone↗