Biomedical subjects

D M Boothe

Publications and source records attributed to D M Boothe.

At least 19 recordsLinked to original sources

PubMed2001

Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of butorphanol in llamas after intravenous and intramuscular administration.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate disposition of butorphanol after i.v. and i.m. administration, effects on physiologic variables, and analgesic efficacy after i.m. administration in llamas. DESIGN: Nonrandomized crossover study. ANIMALS: 6 healthy adult male llamas. PROCEDURE: Butorphanol (0.1 mg/kg [0.045 mg/lb] of body weight) was administered i.m. first and i.v. 1 month later. Blood samples were collected intermittently for 24 hours after administration. Plasma butorphanol versus time curves were subjected to pharmacokinetic analysis. Two months later, butorphanol (0.1 mg/kg) was administered i.m., and physiologic variables and analgesia were assessed. RESULTS: Extrapolated peak plasma concentrations after i.v. and i.m. administration were 94.8 +/- 53.1 and 34.3 +/- 11.6 ng/ml, respectively. Volume of distribution at steady state after i.v. administration was 0.822 +/- 0.329 L/kg per minute and systemic clearance was 0.050 +/- 0.014 L/kg per minute. Slope of the elimination phase was significantly different, and elimination half-life was significantly shorter after i.v. (15.9 +/- 9.1 minutes) versus i.m. (66.8 +/- 13.5 minutes) administration. Bioavailability was 110 +/- 49% after i.m. administration. Heart rate decreased and rectal temperature increased. Somatic analgesia was increased for various periods. Two llamas became transiently sedated, and 2 became transiently excited after butorphanol administration. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Although i.v. administration of butorphanol results in a short half-life that may limit its analgesic usefulness, the elimination half-life of butorphanol administered i.m. is likely to be clinically useful. The relationship among plasma butorphanol concentration, time, and analgesia differed with the somatic analgesia model; clinically useful analgesia may occur at lower plasma concentrations than those reported here.

Analgesics, Opioid↗

PubMed2001

Hyperactivity and alopecia associated with ingestion of valproic acid in a cat.

A 1-year-old castrated male cat was evaluated because of alopecia of approximately 4 to 5 months' duration as well as hyperactive behavior. It was later determined that the cat was ingesting valproic acid by eating food to which it had been added for daily administration to a child in the household who had cerebral palsy. The clinical signs slowly resolved after the source of valproic acid was removed. This emphasizes the sensitivity of cats to drugs that are commonly used in humans. It was not determined whether the clinical signs that developed in this cat were caused by an adverse reaction or from toxicosis as a result of prolonged hepatic elimination of valproic acid, which requires glucuronide metabolism for disposition. However, the cat recovered completely following removal of the drug and prevention of further exposure. This report emphasizes the importance of obtaining a careful and complete history from the owner regarding an animal and its environment. In the cat of this report, the owner had not considered the impact of the presence of the drug in the child's food.

Alopecia↗

PubMed2000

Evaluation of transdermal fentanyl patches for analgesia in cats undergoing onychectomy.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate efficacy and safety of using transdermal fentanyl patches (TFP) for analgesia in cats undergoing onychectomy. DESIGN: Randomized controlled clinical trial. ANIMALS: 45 client-owned cats weighing > or = 2.7 kg (5.9 lb) undergoing onychectomy, onychectomy and ovariohysterectomy, or onychectomy and castration. PROCEDURE: Cats were randomly assigned to be treated with a TFP (25 micrograms/h) or butorphanol; TFP were applied a minimum of 4 hours before surgery (approx 8 hours prior to extubation). Rectal temperature, heart rate, respiratory rate, force applied by the forelimbs, and serum fentanyl concentration were measured, and temperament, recovery, degree of sedation, severity of pain, severity of lameness, and appetite were scored before and periodically for up to 40 hours after surgery. RESULTS: Cats treated with a TFP had better recovery scores at 2 of 4 evaluation times, lower sedation scores at 2 of 8 evaluation times, and lower pain scores at 6 of 8 evaluation times, compared with cats treated with butorphanol. Use of a pressure-sensitive mat to evaluate force applied by the forelimbs did not reveal any differences between groups but did reveal a significant difference between preoperative and postoperative values. Mean +/- SD serum fentanyl concentrations were 1.56 +/- 1.08, 4.85 +/- 2.38, 4.87 +/- 1.56, and 4.35 +/- 2.97 ng/ml approximately 8, 24, 32, and 48 hours, respectively, after TFP placement. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Results suggest that use of a TFP (25 micrograms/h) for postoperative analgesia in cats undergoing onychectomy with or without surgical sterilization is safe and effective.

Administration, Cutaneous↗

PubMed2000

Drugs affecting the respiratory system.

Differences in the disposition of drugs among exotic animals is a well-recognized hurdle when treating disease. Differences exist in pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, and disease processes. This article focuses on the principles of treating respiratory tract diseases, with the recognition that not all drugs are indicated for use in all exotic species. The discussion begins with a description of respiratory physiology as it pertains to response to drugs, using the mammalian lung as a template. The role of respiratory defense mechanisms in airway protection and disease is addressed. Drugs used to treat the respiratory tract include the bronchodilators and anti-inflammatory drugs, drugs that modify respiratory secretions (e.g., mucolytics, mucokinetics, and expectorants), antitussive drugs, and decongestants. Aerosolization is an important adjuvant for respiratory therapy as long as precautions are met. Infectious diseases are among the more common respiratory diseases encountered, and the discussion includes a focus on the use of antibiotics for treating respiratory tract infections.

Administration, Inhalation↗

PubMed2000

Nitric oxide generation in a rat model of acute portal hypertension.

OBJECTIVE: To document blood nitric oxide concentrations in the portal vein and systemic circulation in a rat model of acute portal hypertension and compare values with a control group and a sham surgical group. ANIMALS: 30 rats; 10 controls (group 1), 10 sham surgical (group 2), and 10 rats with surgically induced acute portal hypertension (group 3). PROCEDURE: Following induction of anesthesia, catheters were placed surgically in the carotid artery, jugular, and portal veins of group 2 and 3 rats and in the carotid artery and jugular vein of group 1 rats. Baseline heart and respiratory rates, rectal temperature, and vascular pressure measurements were obtained, and blood was drawn from all catheters for baseline nitric oxide (NO) concentrations. Acute portal hypertension was induced in the group 3 rats by tying a partially occluding suture around the portal vein and a 22-gauge catheter. The catheter was then removed, resulting in a repeatable degree of portal vein impingement. After catheter placement, all variables were remeasured at 15-minute intervals for 3 hours. RESULTS: Blood nitric oxide concentrations were greater in all vessels tested in group 3 than in group 2 rats. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Acute portal hypertension in this experimental model results in increased concentrations of NO in the systemic and portal circulation. On the basis of information in the rat, it is possible that increased NO concentrations may develop in dogs following surgical treatment of congenital portosystemic shunts if acute life-threatening portal hypertension develops. Increased NO concentrations may contribute to the shock syndrome that develops in these dogs.

Animals↗

PubMed2000

Comparison of nuclear scintigraphy and acetaminophen absorption as a means of studying gastric emptying in horses.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the correlation between halftime of liquid-phase gastric emptying (T50), determined with nuclear scintigraphy using technetium Tc 99m pentetate, and absorption variables of orally administered acetaminophen. ANIMALS: 6 mature horses. PROCEDURE: Technetium Tc 99m pentetate (10 mCi) and acetaminophen (20 mg/kg of body weight) were administered simultaneously in 200 ml of water. Serial left and right lateral images of the stomach region were obtained with a gamma camera, and T50 determined separately for counts obtained from the left side, the right side and the geometric mean. Power exponential curves were used for estimation of T50 and modified R2 values for estimation of goodness of fit of the data. Serial serum samples were taken, and acetaminophen concentration was determined, using fluorescence polarization immunoassay. Maximum serum concentration (Cmax), time to reach maximum serum concentration (Tmax), area under the curve for 240 minutes and the absorption constant (Ka) were determined, using a parameter estimation program. Correlations were calculated, using the Spearman rank correlation coefficient. RESULTS: Correlations between T50 and Tmax and between T50 and Ka were significant. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Tmax and Ka are valuable variables in the assessment of liquid-phase gastric emptying using acetaminophen absorption. Acetaminophen absorption may be a valuable alternative to nuclear scintigraphy in the determination of gastric emptying rates in equine patients with normally functioning small intestine.

Acetaminophen↗

PubMed1999

Detection of portal and systemic bacteremia in dogs with severe induced hepatic disease and multiple portosystemic shunts.

OBJECTIVE: To determine existence of portal and systemic bacteremia in dogs with induced severe hepatic disease, compared with clinically normal dogs, before and after vena caval banding. ANIMALS: 6 control dogs and 10 dogs with induced severe hepatic disease and multiple portosystemic shunts (PSS). PROCEDURE: Dogs of the diseased group were given dimethylnitrosamine (2 mg/kg of body weight, PO) twice weekly until multiple PSS developed. Surgery was performed on dogs of both groups, and blood for baseline aerobic and anaerobic bacterial culture was collected from catheters placed in the portal and hepatic veins and caudal vena cava. All dogs underwent vena caval banding, and blood for aerobic and anaerobic bacterial culture was collected from the portal and hepatic venous catheters at 120, 240, and 360 minutes after banding. RESULTS: Compared with control dogs (16% gram-positive and 84% gram-negative bacteria), diseased dogs had significantly higher percentage of gram-positive bacteria (42% of positive culture results, P < or = 0.01) and significantly lower percentage of gram-negative bacteria (58% of positive culture results, P < or = 0.01) isolated. Pseudomonas aeruginosa was isolated most frequently from dogs of both groups; more than 1 organism was isolated from 5 dogs of each group. Antimicrobial susceptibility included that to aminoglycosides (particularly amikacin), fluorinated quinolones, and imipenem. CONCLUSION: Portal and systemic, predominantly gram-negative, bacteremia is present in catheterized, clinically normal dogs and dogs with dimethylnitrosamine-induced hepatic disease and multiple PSS.

Amikacin↗

PubMed1999

Gastrointestinal pharmacology.

Treatment of diseases affecting the gastrointestinal tract often focuses on resolution of clinical pharmacology of drugs used to treat the gastrointestinal tract, starting with appetite stimulants, followed by emetics and antiemetics, and antidiarrheals. Prokinetic agents and drugs used for the treatment of gastroduodenal ulceration are also discussed. Discussions include mechanisms of drug action, disposition of drugs as it relates to therapeutic use, drug interactions, adverse drug reactions, and clinical indications.

Animals↗

PubMed1999

Pharmacokinetics of fentanyl after intravenous and transdermal administration in goats.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate disposition of fentanyl in goats after IV and transdermal administration. ANIMALS: 8 healthy 2-year-old goats weighing 31.8 to 53.6 kg (mean+/-SD, 40.4+/-7.5 kg). PROCEDURE: Each goat was given 2 treatments consisting of fentanyl administered IV (2.5 microg/kg of body weight) and via a transdermal patch (50 microg/h). There was a 2-month interval between treatments. Blood samples were collected at specified times and analyzed in duplicate to determine plasma fentanyl concentrations. Pharmacokinetic values were calculated, using a computerized modeling program. RESULTS: Administration of fentanyl was tolerated by all goats. Intravenous administration of fentanyl resulted in a transitory increase in rectal temperature that was not clinically important. Terminal elimination half-life after IV administration was 1.20+/-0.78 h, volume of distribution at steady state was 1.51+/-0.39 L/kg, and systemic clearance was 2.09+/-0.62 L/kg/h. Transdermal administration of fentanyl resulted in variable plasma concentrations, with peak plasma concentrations ranging from 1.12 to 16.69 ng/ml (mean+/-SD, 6.99+/-6.03 ng/ml) and time to peak concentration ranging from 8 to 18 hours (mean+/-SD, 13+/-4.5 hours). After removal of the transdermal patch, mean+/-SD terminal elimination half-life was 5.34+/-5.34 hours. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Intravenous administration of fentanyl (2.5 microg/kg) in goats results in a relatively short half-life that will limit its use for management of pain. Transdermal administration of fentanyl (50 microg/h) in goats results in variable plasma concentrations that may exceed those anticipated on the basis of a theoretical delivery rate, but stable plasma concentrations of fentanyl may not be achieved.

Administration, Cutaneous↗

PubMed1998

Drugs acting on blood and/or blood forming organs.

Pharmacologic therapy for anemia is oriented toward (1) providing components needed for red blood cell production (vitamin B12 and folic acid), including hemoglobin synthesis (iron and other minerals), and (2) stimulating bone marrow formation of red blood cells. Drugs used to stimulate bone marrow activity will be the focus of this article.

Animals↗

PubMed1998

Anticonvulsant therapy in small animals.

Successful control of seizures with anticonvulsant drugs reflects a balance in achieving seizure control while minimizing undesirable drug side effects. Variability in the disposition of anticonvulsants and interaction among them are important confounders of successful therapy. This article will provide a review of selected anticonvulsants, focusing on drugs most likely to control seizures in small animals. The proper use of anticonvulsants will be discussed, with emphasis on differences in individual drug disposition, detection of these differences, and rational approaches to responding to these differences by dose modification. The primary target of discussion will be treatment of generalized, tonic clonic seizures, the most common type afflicting small animals. Opinions regarding anticonvulsive therapy vary among clinicians. Most of the comments and recommendations offered in this discussion reflect observations made from our therapeutic drug monitoring service and completed and ongoing clinical trials that focus on the use of anticonvulsants used either alone or in combination with phenobarbital.

Acetates↗

PubMed1998

Concentration of enrofloxacin and its active metabolite in alveolar macrophages and pulmonary epithelial lining fluid of dogs.

The purpose of this study was to determine the concentration of enrofloxacin and its active metabolite, ciprofloxacin, in alveolar macrophages (AM) and epithelial lining fluid (ELF) of the lungs in comparison to plasma concentrations in healthy dogs. Eleven dogs were given a single oral dose (5 mg/kg) of enrofloxacin. Four hours later, plasma and bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid were collected. Cells were separated from the BAL fluid and lysed for determination of drug concentrations within AM. Supernatant was used to determine concentrations of drugs in ELF. Drug assays were performed by high-performance liquid chromatography. The concentration of enrofloxacin (mean +/- SD) was 0.33 +/- 0.14 microgram/mL in plasma, 3.34 +/- 2.4 micrograms/mL in AM and 4.79 +/- 5.0 micrograms/mL in ELF. The concentration of ciprofloxacin was 0.42 +/- 0.26 microgram/mL in plasma, 1.15 +/- 1.03 micrograms/mL in AM and 0.26 +/- 0.26 microgram/mL in ELF. Mean concentrations of both drugs in AM were greater than in plasma (AM to plasma ratio, 10.3 for enrofloxacin and 4.7 for ciprofloxacin). Mean concentrations of enrofloxacin, but not ciprofloxacin, in ELF were greater than in plasma (ELF to plasma ratio, 13.5 for enrofloxacin and 0.52 for ciprofloxacin). Enrofloxacin concentrations in AM and ELF largely exceeded the MICs of the major bacterial pathogens and surpassed by about two times the breakpoint MIC of that drug, and ciprofloxacin concentrations in AM surpassed the MIC of many susceptible organisms. These results suggest that sufficient antimicrobial activity is present in AM and ELF of dogs following oral administration of enrofloxacin to be effective in the treatment of lower respiratory tract infections involving susceptible organisms.

Animals↗

PubMed1998

Disposition of cyproheptadine in cats after intravenous or oral administration of a single dose.

OBJECTIVE: To determine disposition of cyproheptadine hydrochloride in cats after intravenous or oral administration of a single dose. ANIMALS: 6 healthy cats. PROCEDURE: A randomized crossover design was used, and each cat was studied after intravenous (2 mg) and oral (8 mg) administration of cyproheptadine. Blood samples were collected at fixed time intervals after drug administration, and serum cyproheptadine concentration was determined by means of polarized immunofluorescence. RESULTS: Mean (+/- SD) residence time was significantly longer after oral (823 +/- 191 minutes) than after intravenous (339 +/- 217 minutes) administration, but no significant differences were detected between other pharmacokinetic parameters after oral and intravenous administration. Mean +/- SD oral bioavailability was 1.01 +/- 0.36. Mean elimination half-life after oral administration was 12.8 +/- 9.9 hours. Peak extrapolated cyproheptadine concentration was 669 +/- 206 ng/ml. Only 1 cat developed adverse effects (transient vocalization). CONCLUSIONS: Cyproheptadine appeared to be well tolerated in cats and had high bioavailability after oral administration. The mean elimination half-life of 12 hours indicated that approximately 2.5 days must elapse to achieve steady-state concentrations of cyproheptadine after oral administration of multiple doses. A 12-hour dosing interval is acceptable, but an 8-hour interval may be indicated for some cats. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: On the basis of pharmacokinetic parameters determined in this study, the oral form of cyproheptadine appears to be suitable for use in clinical trials to treat anorexia in cats. Its half-life is compatible with once or twice daily dosing.

Administration, Oral↗

PubMed1997

Endotoxemia associated with experimentally induced multiple portosystemic shunts in dogs.

OBJECTIVE: To document presence of endotoxin in portal and systemic blood in a model of canine multiple portosystemic shunts (PSS), and compare values in clinically normal dogs, before and after vena caval banding. ANIMALS: 6 control dogs and 10 dogs with dimethylnitrosamine-induced multiple PSS that were subjected to vena caval banding. PROCEDURE: Dimethylnitrosamine was administered orally (2 mg/kg of body weight, twice weekly) to the 10 dogs in the diseased group until multiple PSS developed. Surgery was then performed on all 16 dogs (both groups), and shunts were confirmed in the diseased dogs. Blood was collected from the portal vein, hepatic vein, and caudal vena cava baseline endotoxin determination and aerobic and anaerobic blood culturing. Baseline pressure measurements were taken from the portal venous catheter; then vena caval banding was performed. Blood for endotoxin determinations was taken from all vessels 20, 40, 60, 120, 240, and 360 minutes after banding; portal pressure measurements were taken at the same time as sample acquisition. Blood for culturing was taken from the portal and hepatic venous catheters at 120, 240, and 360 minutes after banding. RESULTS: Dogs in the diseased group had significantly greater overall presence of endotoxin in the portal vein (P < or = 0.0002), hepatic vein (P < or = 0.0001), and caudal vena cava (P < or = 0.0004) than did control dogs. With respect to time, endotoxin presence was greater in the diseased group before banding (P < or = 0.0002), and at 20 (P < or = 0.0008), 40 (P < or = 0.002), 60 (P < or = 0.006), and 120 (P < or = 0.01) minutes after banding. CONCLUSIONS: Endotoxemia is more frequently present in catheterized dogs with dimethylnitrosamine-induced hepatic disease and multiple PSS, compared with clinically normal dogs. Additionally, portal pressure changes induced by vena caval banding did not affect endotoxemia. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Endotoxemia may exist in dogs with hepatic disease and multiple PSS, and should be kept in mind when formulating treatment (particularly antimicrobial selection) for dogs with suspected endotoxemia.

Animals↗

PubMed1997

Pharmacokinetics of a single intravenous enrofloxacin dose in scimitar-horned oryx (Oryx dammah).

Based on a 1.3 mg/kg mean dosage determined by metabolic energy scaling, enrofloxacin pharmacokinetics of a single i.v. dose of enrofloxacin in five adult scimitar-horned oryx (Oryx dammah) were determined. Drug concentration versus time curves were best fit by residual analysis to a one-compartment open model with a maximum (mean +/- SD) serum concentration after distribution of 1.887 +/- 0.632 micrograms/ml and an elimination half-life of 41.2 +/- 27.5 min. Model-independent parameters were area under the curve (173.63 +/- 147.5 micrograms.min/ml), mean volume of distribution (steady state) (0.80 +/- 0.30 L/kg), clearance (12.07 +/- 7.12 ml/min/kg), and residence time (77.22 +/- 72.8 min). Mean serum enrofloxacin concentrations reached the recommended minimum inhibitory concentration (1.0 micrograms/ml). Drug concentrations remained above the minimum inhibitory concentration of most sensitive bacteria (0.5 micrograms/ml) consistently for 90 min. Based on this study, enrofloxacin would have to be administered parenterally to scimitar-horned oryx at 1.6 mg/kg every 6-8 hr (minimally) to maintain appropriate serum concentrations against susceptible bacteria. The metabolic energy scaled dosed regiment from this study appeared to be too low for the oryx.

Animals↗

PubMed1997

Disposition of single-dose intravenously administered enrofloxacin in emus (Dromaius novaehollandiae).

The pharmacokinetics of enrofloxacin in emus (Dromaius novaehollandiae) were examined following parenteral administration. A mean allometrically scaled dose of 2.2 +/- 0.03 mg/kg was administered as a single i.v. bolus, and serum samples were collected at predetermined intervals over a 24-hr period. Enrofloxacin levels were measured using high-performance liquid chromatography, and the resulting concentration versus time curve was analyzed using nonlinear regression with least squares parameter estimation. The data were best represented by a two-compartment model with a mean elimination half-life of 3.33 hr. Mean model independent parameters obtained were area under the curve (8.26 micrograms.hr/ml), mean residence time (4.40 hr), apparent volume of distribution (1.49 L/kg), and total body drug clearance (0.36 L/hr/kg). Mean serum concentrations exceeded the target peak of 2.0 micrograms/ml and remained above an estimated inhibitory concentration of 0.5 micrograms/ml for approximately 2 hr. Based upon the results of this study, enrofloxacin administered parenterally to emus at 2.2 mg/kg every 12 hr is expected to achieve therapeutic serum concentrations against susceptible organisms.

Animals↗

PubMed1997

Disposition of single-dose intravenously administered amikacin in emus (Dromaius novaehollandiae).

The pharmacokinetics of amikacin in emus (Dromaius novaehollandiae) was examined following parenteral administration. A mean 7.2 +/- 0.12 mg/kg dose was administered as a single i.v. bolus, and serum samples were collected at predetermined intervals over a 24-hr period. Amikacin levels were measured using a fluorescence polarization immunoassay, and the resulting concentration-versus-time curve was analyzed using nonlinear regression with least squares parameter estimation. The data were best represented by a three-compartment model with a mean elimination half-life (t1/2 beta) of 0.87 hr, with a longer rate of elimination from the third compartment (t1/2 gamma = 6.06 hr). Mean model-independent parameters obtained were area under the curve (269.66 micrograms.hr/ml), mean residence time (6.48 hr), apparent volume of distribution (0.18 L/kg), and total body drug clearance (0.03 L/hr/kg). Mean serum concentrations exceeded a target peak of 32.0 micrograms/ml and remained above an estimated inhibitory concentration of 8.0 micrograms/ml for approximately 12 hr. Mean serum levels had declined below a target trough of 4 micrograms/ml at 24 hr.

Amikacin↗

PubMed1997

Amikacin pharmacokinetics and the effects of ambient temperature on the dosage regimen in ball pythons (Python regius).

The serum concentration of amikacin following intracardiac and i.m. administration of amikacin (3.48 mg/kg) in 12 ball pythons (Python regius) housed at 25 degrees C and 37 degrees C was studied. Blood samples were collected by cardiocentesis at intervals up to 144 hr after administration of amikacin. Drug concentration-versus-time curves following intracardiac administration at both temperatures best fit a two-compartment open model. For snakes housed at 37 degrees C, the extrapolated time 0 concentration (mean +/- SD) was 17.64 +/- 3.5 micrograms/ml with a median elimination half-life of 4.5 days. The maximum concentrations were 11.98 +/- 1.67 micrograms/ml and 13.87 +/- 2.61 micrograms/ml for snakes housed at 25 degrees C and 37 degrees C respectively. There were no significant pharmacokinetic differences among the snakes housed at 25 degrees C and 37 degrees C. Model-independent parameters were area under the curve, 69,900 +/- 0.011 micrograms.min/ml, apparent volume of distribution at steady state, 410 +/- 106 ml/kg, clearance, 0.036 +/- 0.009 ml/min/kg, and mean residence time, 3,530 +/- 273.7 minutes. Mean serum amikacin concentrations did not reach the recommended therapeutic peak concentrations for mammals (25 micrograms/ml). In addition, the amikacin serum concentration did not fall below the recommended therapeutic trough concentrations (2 micrograms/ml) by 6 days. The serum amikacin concentrations were efficacious based on the area under the curve. Therefore, amikacin (3.48 mg/kg) administered i.m. to ball pythons should produce maximum serum concentrations against most pathogenic bacteria. In this study, it would have taken another half-life, or 4.5 days, before trough concentrations of 2 micrograms/ml were achieved. To prevent accumulation, a one-time administration of amikacin may be appropriate.

Amikacin↗