Biomedical subjects

D W Halton

Publications and source records attributed to D W Halton.

At least 19 recordsLinked to original sources

PubMed2006

Neuromusculature of Macrogyrodactylus congolensis, a monogenean skin parasite of the Nile catfish Clarias gariepinus.

Phalloidin fluorescence technique, enzyme cytochemistry and immunocytochemistry, in conjunction with confocal scanning laser microscopy, were used to describe the neuromusculature of the monogenean skin parasite Macrogyrodactylus congolensis from the Nile catfish Clarias gariepinus. The body wall muscles are composed of an outer layer of compactly arranged circular fibres, an intermediate layer of paired longitudinal fibres and an inner layer of well-spaced bands of diagonal fibres arranged in two crossed directions. The central nervous system consists of paired cerebral ganglia from which three pairs of longitudinal ventral, lateral and dorsal nerve cords arise. The nerve cords are connected at intervals by many transverse connectives. Both central and peripheral nervous systems are bilaterally symmetrical and better developed ventrally than laterally and dorsally. Structural and functional correlates of the neuromusculature of the pharynx, haptor and reproductive tracts were examined. Results implicate acetylcholine, FMRFamide-related peptides and serotonin in sensory and motor function. The results were compared with those of Macrogyrodactylus clarii, a gill parasite of the same host fish C. gariepinus.

Animals↗

PubMed2005

Fine structure of the anterior adhesive apparatus (head organs) of Bravohollisia gussevi Lim, 1995 (Monogenea: Ancyrocephalidae).

A study of the anterior adhesive apparatus (head organs) of Bravohollisia gussevi Lim, 1995 was carried out using light and electron microscopy. The anterior adhesive apparatus or head organs in B. gussevi comprise 6 circular openings or apertures in the antero-lateral region, associated pits lined with specialized microvillous tegument that differ from the general body tegument, a bundle of ducts, and uninucleate gland cells located lateral to the pharynx. The uninucleate glands of the anterior adhesive apparatus (head organs) comprise 2 types of cells, one kind of cell producing rod-like bodies (S1) and the other oval bodies (S2). The S1 bodies are filled with numerous, less electron-dense vesicles in an electron-dense matrix, while S2 bodies have no vesicles but contain a more homogeneous electron-dense matrix. Interlinking band-like structures were observed between S1 bodies. Similar band-like structures were found between S2 bodies. The formation of S1 bodies was followed by transmission electron microscopy. However, the formation of S2 bodies was unclear and could not be resolved. Uniciliated structures were also observed around the openings of the anterior adhesive apparatus. Each uniciliated structure is usually associated with an opening of a gland cell producing granular, electron-dense, secretory bodies, which differ from the secretions produced by the lateral gland cells of the anterior adhesive apparatus.

Animal Structures↗

PubMed2005

Inter-phyla studies on neuropeptides: the potential for broad-spectrum anthelmintic and/or endectocide discovery.

Flatworm, nematode and arthropod parasites have proven their ability to develop resistance to currently available chemotherapeutics. The heavy reliance on chemotherapy and the ability of target species to develop resistance has prompted the search for novel drug targets. In view of its importance to parasite/pest survival, the neuromusculature of parasitic helminths and pest arthropod species remains an attractive target for the discovery of novel endectocide targets. Exploitation of the neuropeptidergic system in helminths and arthropods has been hampered by a limited understanding of the functional roles of individual peptides and the structure of endogenous targets, such as receptors. Basic research into these systems has the potential to facilitate target characterization and its offshoots (screen development and drug identification). Of particular interest to parasitologists is the fact that selected neuropeptide families are common to metazoan pest species (nematodes, platyhelminths and arthropods) and fulfil specific roles in the modulation of muscle function in each of the three phyla. This article reviews the inter-phyla activity of two peptide families, the FMRFamide-like peptides and allatostatins, on motor function in helminths and arthropods and discusses the potential of neuropeptide signalling as a target system that could uncover novel endectocidal agents.

Animals↗

PubMed2004

Neuromusculature of Macrogyrodactylus clarii, a monogenean gill parasite of the Nile catfish Clarias gariepinus in Egypt.

Phalloidin fluorescence technique, enzyme cytochemistry and immunocytochemistry in conjunction with confocal scanning laser microscopy have been used for the first time to describe the nervous and muscle systems of the viviparous monogenean gill parasite, Macrogyrodactylus clarii. The gross spatial arrangement of muscle and associated cholinergic, peptidergic and aminergic innervations has been examined. The central nervous system (CNS) consists of paired cerebral ganglia from which emanate three pairs of longitudinal ventral, lateral and dorsal nerve cords, connected at intervals by transverse connectives. The CNS is better developed ventrally than dorsally or laterally, and has the strongest reactivity for all neuroactive substances examined. Structural and functional correlates of the neuromusculature of the pharynx, haptor and reproductive tracts have been examined. Results implicate acetylcholine, FMRFamide-related peptides (FaRPs) and serotonin in sensory and motor function in this monogenean, although confirmatory physiological data are obviously required.

Acetylcholine↗

PubMed2003

The ovijector of Ascaris suum: multiple response types revealed by Caenorhabditis elegans FMRFamide-related peptides.

Caenorhabditis elegans possesses 22 FMRFamide-like peptide (flp) genes predicted to encode 60 different FMRFamide-related peptides with a range of C-terminal signatures. Peptides from five flp genes (1, 6, 8, 9 and 14) are known to modulate the ovijector of Ascaris suum in vitro. This study examines the physiological effects of peptides from the remaining 17 flp genes such that the variety of FMRFamide-related peptide-induced ovijector response types can be delineated. Five categories of response were identified according to the pattern of changes in contractile behaviour and baseline tension. Peptides encoded on 16 flp genes (1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17 and 20) had qualitatively similar inhibitory (response type 1) actions, with the lowest activity thresholds (1 nM) recorded for peptides with FIRFamide or FLRFamide C-terminal signatures. Peptides encoded on four flp genes (2, 18, 19 and 21), and on the A. suum afp-1 gene, had excitatory actions on the ovijector (response type 2), with PGVLRFamides having the lowest activity threshold (1 nM). An flp-2 peptide (LRGEPIRFamide) induced a transient contraction of the ovijector (activity threshold, 10nM) that was designated response type 3. Response type 4 comprised a transient contraction followed by an extended period of inactivity and was observed with peptides encoded on flp-5 (AGAKFIRFamide, APKPKFIRFamide), flp-8 (KNEFIRFamide) and flp-22 (SPSAKWMRFamide). SPSAKWMRFamide was the most potent peptide tested with an activity threshold of 0.1 nM. A single peptide (AMRNALVRFamide; activity threshold 0.1 microM), encoded on flp-11, induced response type 5, a shortening of the ovijector coupled with an increase in contraction frequency. Although most flp genes encode structurally related peptides that trigger one of the five ovijector response types, flp-2 and flp-11 co-encode FMRFamide-related peptides that induce distinct responses. Within the ovijector of A. suum FaRPs play a complex role involving at least five receptor subtypes or signalling pathways.

Animals↗

PubMed2003

Gross anatomy of the muscle systems and associated innervation of Apatemon cobitidis proterorhini metacercaria (Trematoda: Strigeidea), as visualized by confocal microscopy.

The major muscle systems of the metacercaria of the strigeid trematode, Apatemon cobitidis proterorhini have been examined using phalloidin as a site-specific probe for filamentous actin. Regional differences were evident in the organization of the body wall musculature of the forebody and hindbody, the former comprising outer circular, intermediate longitudinal and inner diagonal fibres, the latter having the inner diagonal fibres replaced with an extra layer of more widely spaced circular muscle. Three orientations of muscle fibres (equatorial, meridional, radial) were discernible in the oral sucker, acetabulum and paired lappets. Large longitudinal extensor and flexor muscles project into the hindbody where they connect to the body wall or end blindly. Innervation to the muscle systems of Apatemon was examined by immunocytochemistry, using antibodies to known myoactive substances: the flatworm FMRFamide-related neuropeptide (FaRP), GYIRFamide, and the biogenic amine, 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT). Strong immunostaining for both peptidergic and serotoninergic components was found in the central nervous system and confocal microscopic mapping of the distribution of these neuroactive substances revealed they occupied separate neuronal pathways. In the peripheral nervous system, GYIRFamide-immunoreactivity was extensive and, in particular, associated with the innervation of all attachment structures; serotoninergic fibres, on the other hand, were localized to the oral sucker and pharynx and to regions along the anterior margins of the forebody.

Animals↗

PubMed2003

Cytochemical studies of the neuromuscular systems of the diporpa and juvenile stages of Eudiplozoon nipponicum (Monogenea: diplozoidae).

Using indirect immuno- and enzyme-cytochemical techniques, interfaced with confocal scanning laser microscopy and standard optical microscopy, neuronal pathways have been demonstrated in whole-mount preparations of the unpaired diporpae and freshly paired juvenile stages of Eudiplozoon nipponicum (Monogenea: Diplozoidae). All 3 main classes of neuronal mediators, cholinergic, aminergic and peptidergic, were identified throughout both central and peripheral elements of a well-differentiated orthogonal nervous system. Neural mapping revealed considerable overlap and similarity in staining of the nervous systems of the diporpa and adult worm. The main differences in the diporpa relate to the innervation of the temporary ventral sucker and dorsal papilla, structures which are unique to the larva and which enable fusion between worms but then disappear. Branches from the longitudinal nerve cords innervate these structures and appear to be involved in the process of somatic fusion, probably giving rise to the inter-specimen connections that later link the 2 central nervous systems in paired adult parasites. In the hindbody, there is extensive haptoral innervation associated with the developing clamps and small central hooks. Reactive neuronal components were found associated with the early stages of clamp development prior to connections being made with the extrinsic adductor muscle bundles. The muscle systems of the diporpa and juvenile stages comprise a lattice-like arrangement of circular, longitudinal and diagonal fibres that make up the body wall, together with buccal suckers, haptoral clamps and associated adductor muscles, and the transient ventral sucker. All have obvious importance to diporpae when they migrate over the gill and undertake body contact, torsion and fusion during the process of pairing. Behaviour during the pairing of diporpae is described.

Acetylcholine↗

PubMed2003

Microscopical evaluation of neural connectivity between paired stages of Eudiplozoon nipponicum (Monogenea: Diplozoidae).

Diplozoidae monogeneans am fish-gill ectoparasites comprising 2 individuals fused in so-called permanent copula. This unique situation occurs when 2 larvae (diporpee) make contact on the host gin, such that their union triggers maturation into an individual adult worm. The present study examined paired stages of Eudiplozoon nipponioun microscopicaily to ascertain whether somatic fusion involves neural connectivity between these 2 heterogenic larvae. Neuronal pathways were demonstrated in whole-mount preparations of the worm, using indirect immunocytochemical techniques interfaced with confocal scanning laser microscopy for peptidergic and serotoninergic innervations and enzyme cytochemical methodology and light microscopy for cholinergic component. Elements of the central nervous systems of paired worms are connected by commissures in the region of fusion so that the 2 systems are in structural continuity. Interindividual connections were mast apparent between corresponding ventral nerve cords. All 3 classes of neuronal mediators were identified throughout both central and peripheral connections of the 2 nervous systems. The anatomical complexity and apparent plasticity of the diplozoon nervous system suggest that it has a pivotal role not only in motility, feeding, and reproductive behavious but also in the events of larval pairing and somatic fusion.

Animals↗

PubMed2003

Organization of the musculature of schistosome cercariae.

Phalloidin-fluorescein isothiocyanate staining of filamentous actin was used to identify muscle systems within the cercariae of Schistosoma mansoni. Examination of labeled cercariae by confocal scanning laser microscopy revealed distinct organizational levels of myofiber arrangements within the body wall, anterior cone, acetabulum, and esophagus. The body wall throughout showed a typical latticelike arrangement of outer circular and inner longitudinal myofibers, with an additional innermost layer of diagonal fibers in the anterior portion of the body. Circular and longitudinal fibers were also evident in the anterior organ and esophagus and, to some extent, the ventral acetabulum. Most striking was the striation of the cercarial tail musculature.

Animals↗

PubMed2002

Neuropeptides in flatworms.

The use of well-characterized antibodies raised to neuronal signal substances and their application through immunocytochemistry and confocal scanning laser microscopy has revolutionized studies of the flatworm nervous system (NS). Data about flatworm neuropeptides and the spatial relationship between neuropeptides and other neuronal signal substances and muscle fibers are presented. Neuropeptides form a large part of the flatworm NS. Neuropeptides are especially important as myoexcitatory transmitters or modulators, controlling the musculature of the attachment organs, the stomatogastric and the reproductive systems.

Acetylcholine↗

PubMed2002

Mesocestoides corti (syn. M. vogae): modulation of larval motility by neuropeptides, serotonin and acetylcholine.

The effect of platyhelminth FaRPs and selected classical neurotransmitters on the motility of intact Mesocestoides corti (syn. M. vogae) tetrathyridial larvae was studied in vitro using a micromotility meter. The effects of the test substances were temperature dependent and these were examined at 4, 23, 30 and 36 degrees C. At 36 degrees C all test substances had concentration-dependent excitatory effects, with thresholds for activity of: 100 nM (GNFFRFamide), 10 microm (YIRFamide), 30 microM (GYIRFamide), 100 nM (serotonin) and 100 microM (acetylcholine). At this temperature significant elevation of motility indices (MI) was recorded within 5 min of the addition of peptide or serotonin. The effect of acetylcholine was slower in onset and appeared 15-20 min post-addition. At 30 degrees C larval motility diminished more rapidly than that recorded at 36 degrees C, following the addition of 1 mM of each test substance. At 23 degrees C only serotonin (1 mM) significantly increased the MI, all other test substances having no apparent effect. Larval movement was completely arrested at 4 degrees C. The results demonstrate for the first time excitatory effects of platyhelminth neuropeptides and acetylcholine on muscle systems in cestode larvae. The fact that the only known cestode FaRP, GNFFRF amide, was more potent than any of the turbellarian FaRPs tested, suggests structural conservation of FaRPs and FaRP receptors within the cestodes.

Acetylcholine↗

PubMed2001

Isolation and preliminary biological assessment of AADGAPLIRFamide and SVPGVLRFamide from Caenorhabditis elegans.

To date, 9 FMRFamide-related peptides (FaRPs) have been structurally characterised from Caenorhabditis elegans. Radioimmunometrical screening of an ethanolic extract of C. elegans revealed the presence of two additional FaRPs that were purified by reverse-phase HPLC and subjected to Edman degradation analysis and gas-phase sequencing. Unequivocal primary structures for the two FaRPs were determined as Ala-Ala-Asp-Gly-Ala-Pro-Leu-Ile-Arg-Phe-NH(2) and Ser-Val-Pro-Gly-Val-Leu-Arg-Phe-NH(2). Using MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry, the molecular masses of the peptides were found to be 1032 Da (MH) and 875 Da (MH)(+), respectively. Two copies of AADGAPLIRFamide are predicted to be encoded on the precursor gene termed flp-13, while one copy of SVPGVLRFamide is located on flp-18. Synthetic replicates of the peptides were tested on Ascaris suum somatic muscle to assess bioactivity. ADDGAPLIRFamide had inhibitory effects on A. suum muscle strips, which occurred over a range of concentrations from a threshold for activity of 10 nM to 10 microM. SVPGVLRFamide was excitatory on A. suum somatic musculature from a threshold concentration for activity of 1 nM to 10 microM. The inhibitory and excitatory effects of AADGAPLIRFamide and SVPGVLRFamide, respectively, were the same for dorsal and ventral muscle strips as well as innervated and denervated preparations, suggesting that these physiological effects are not nerve cord dependent. Addition of ADDGAPLIRFamide (10 microM) to muscle strips preincubated in high-K(+) and -Ca(2+)-free medium resulted in a normal inhibitory response. Peptide addition to muscle strips preincubated in Cl(-)-free medium showed no inhibitory response, suggesting that the inhibitory response of the peptide may be chloride mediated. A normal excitatory response was noted following the addition of 10 microM SVPGVLRFamide to muscle strips preincubated in high-K(+), Ca(2+)- and Cl(-)-free media.

Animals↗

PubMed2001

FMRFamide-related peptides in potato cyst nematodes.

This study presents data demonstrating the presence of FMRFamide-related peptides (FaRPs) in potato cyst nematodes (PCN). Five transcripts of FaRP encoding genes, designated gpflp-1 to gpflp-5, were characterised using RACE. In terms of ORFs, gpflp-1 was 444 base pairs (bp) long and coded for four copies of the FaRP, PF3 (KSAYMRFamide) whilst gpflp-2 was 309 bp long and encoded one copy of the peptide, KNKFEFIRFamide. gpflp-3 (420 bp) Encoded two copies of KHEYLRFamide (AF2) and the genes gpflp-4 and gpflp-5 encoded a total of 11 FaRPs, most of which are novel to PCN. FMRFamide-related peptide (FaRP)-like immunoreactivity was observed in both PCN species, Globodera pallida and Globodera rostochiensis, using an antiserum raised against the invertebrate peptide, FMRFamide. Immunopositive neurones were found throughout the central nervous system in the ventral and dorsal nerve cords and the circumpharyngeal and perianal nerve rings. Reactive neurones were also present peripherally, innervating the highly muscular pharynx with a nerve net and ring-like structures. Positive immunostaining was also observed in neurones running toward the stylet protractor muscles and/or the anterior sensory apparatus. This study implicates a role for FaRPs in feeding, host penetration and sensory function of PCN. This is the first study to characterise FaRP encoding genes from a plant-parasitic nematode using a targeted PCR based RACE approach and further underlines the importance and diversity of this neuropeptide group in the phylum Nematoda.

Amino Acid Sequence↗

PubMed2001

Comparative study of the spatial relationship between nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate-diaphorase activity, serotonin immunoreactivity, and GYIRFamide immunoreactivity and the musculature of the adult liver fluke, Fasciola hepatica (Digenea, fasciolidae).

This is the first detailed description of the nitrergic nervous system in a fluke. In this study, the authors analysed the distribution of the nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate-diaphorase (NADPH-d) reactivity in neuronal and nonneuronal tissues of the adult fluke Fasciola hepatica and compared this with the distribution of the musculature using tetramethylrhodamine isothiocyanate-phalloidin. To assess the correlation between the number of muscle cells in different parts of the fluke and the NADPH-d-stained cells, the nuclei were stained with Hoechst 333 42, which is specific for chromatin. The spatial relation between the NADPH-d-positive nerves and the 5-hydroxytryptamine (serotonin; 5-HT)-immunoreactive (-IR) and GYIRFamide-IR nervous elements was also examined. The methods complement each other. NADPH-d-positive staining occurs in both in neuronal tissue and nonneuronal tissue. Large, NADPH-d-stained neurones were localised in the nervous system. The oral and ventral suckers are innervated with many large NADPH-d-stained neurones. In addition, the NADPH-d staining reaction follows closely the muscle fibres in both the suckers, in the body, and in the ducts of the reproductive organs. The presence of NADPH-d activity along muscle fibres in F. hepatica and in other flatworms supports a possible myoinhibitory role for nitric oxide. Neuronal nitric oxide synthase in flatworms may form a novel drug target, which would facilitate the development of a novel anthelminthic.

Animals↗

PubMed2001

Immunomicroscopical observations on the nervous system of adult Eudiplozoon nipponicum (Monogenea: Diplozoidae).

Neuronal pathways have been examined in adult Eudiplozoon nipponicum (Monogenea: Diplozoidae), using cytochemistry interfaced with confocal scanning laser microscopy, in an attempt to ascertain the status of the nervous system. Peptidergic and serotoninergic innervation was demonstrated by indirect immunocytochemistry and cholinergic components by enzyme cytochemical methodology; post-embedding electron microscopical immunogold labelling revealed neuropeptide immunoreactivity at the subcellular level. All three classes of neuronal mediators were identified throughout both central and peripheral elements of a well-differentiated orthogonal nervous system. There was considerable overlap in the staining patterns for cholinergic and peptidergic components, while dual immunostaining revealed serotonin immunoreactivity to be largely confined to a separate set of neurons. The subcellular distribution of immunoreactivity to the flatworm neuropeptide, GYIRFamide, confirmed neuropeptide localisation in dense-cored vesicles in the majority of the axons and terminal varicosities of both central and peripheral nervous systems. Results reveal an extensive and chemically diverse nervous system and suggest that pairing of individuals involves fusion of central nerve elements; it is likely also that there is continuity between the peripheral nervous systems of the two partner worms.

Animals↗

PubMed2001

Physiological effects of FMRFamide-related peptides and classical transmitters on dispersed muscle fibres of the turbellarian, Procerodes littoralis.

The physiological effects of selected classical transmitters and FMRFamide-related peptides (FaRPs) on dispersed muscle fibres from the marine turbellarian, Procerodes littoralis have been examined. Confocal scanning laser microscopy coupled with fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC) or tetramethylrhodamine (TRITC)-labelled phalloidin revealed a highly developed body wall muscle system with circular, longitudinal and diagonal layers of muscle fibres. Dispersed muscle fibres contracted when depolarized by exposure to extracellular media with elevated K+ (15-100 mM) in a concentration-dependent manner, with a maximal response of 87% achieved at > or = 75 mM. 5-Hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) induced concentration-dependent muscle contraction between 0.01 and 1000 microM, with 10 microM producing a near maximal contraction response of 75%. Acetylcholine (ACh) had less pronounced excitatory effects (0.01-1000 microM), inducing contraction of only 32% of the fibres at 100 microM. The flatworm FMRFamide-related peptides (FaRPs), GYIRFamide, YIRFamide and GNFFRFamide each had concentration-dependent myocontractile effects, indicating the occurrence of at least 1 FaRP receptor on P. littoralis muscle fibres. At 10 microM peptide, GNFFRFamide induced contractions in < 40% of the muscle fibres examined, whereas YIRFamide and GYIRFamide induced contraction in 70 and 75% of muscle fibres, respectively. The order of potency of the peptides was: GYIRFamide > YIRFamide > GNFFRFamide. Pre-incubation of the muscle fibres in 5 microM 5-HT significantly reduced the responses to GYIRFamide, YIRFamide and 5-HT, while the responses to high K+ remained unaltered. Muscle fibres pre-incubated in GYIRFamide (0.1 microM) were also less responsive to 5-HT but not to ACh and high-K+. The GYIRFamide analogue, GYIRDFamide, did not induce muscle contraction (0.01-100 microM) per se, but when co-applied with the myoactive peptides GYIRFamide, YIRFamide or GNFFRFamide, it significantly blocked their ability to elicit contractions. This suggests that the peptides tested may act via a common muscle-based neuropeptide receptor. GYIRDFamide did not alter the contractile effects of high K+, 5-HT or ACh. Collectively, these results indicate that FaRPs, 5-HT and ACh all have the potential to cause muscle contraction in flatworms and that 5-HT and FaRPs alter muscle sensitivity to each other, but do not influence the ability of flatworm muscle fibres to contract.

Acetylcholine↗

PubMed2001

Organisation of the nervous system in the Acoela: an immunocytochemical study.

In order to broaden the information about the organisation of the nervous system in taxon Acoela, an immunocytochemical study of an undetermined Acoela from Cape Kartesh, Faerlea glomerata, Avagina incola and Paraphanostoma crassum has been performed. Antibodies to 5-HT and the native flatworm neuropeptide GYIRFamide were used. As in earlier studies, the pattern of 5-HT immunoreactivity revealed an anterior structure composed mainly of commissures, a so-called commissural brain. Three types of brain shapes were observed. No regular orthogon was visualised. GYIRFamide immunoreactive cell clusters were observed peripherally to the 5-HT immunoreactive commissural brain. Staining with anti-GYIRFamide revealed more nerve processes than did staining with anti-FMRFamide. As no synapomorphies were found in the organisation of the nervous system of the Acoela and that of the Platyhelminthes, the results support the view that the Acoela is not a member of the Platyhelminthes.

Animals↗

PubMed2000

Partial characterization of a novel cathepsin L-like protease from Fasciola hepatica.

A 30-kDa protease, purified previously from Fasciola hepatica, was sequenced and the first 15 N-terminal residues were found to be 100% homologous to a region in the protein Fcp1c, which was cloned and expressed from F. hepatica. This terminal region was also 53 and 54% identical to two other cathepsin L-like proteases isolated from the same source. The 30-kDa protease demonstrated a specificity different from humancathepsin L when assayed with novel peptidyl enediones of the type Z-Phe-Ala-CH&dbond;CH(2)-CO(2)R (where R = Me/Et/Bu(t)). The ethyl ester peptide was a more efficient inhibitor of the protease than the corresponding methyl ester. This is in contrast to bovine cathepsin B and human cathepsin L where both are more readily inhibited by the methyl, rather than the ethyl ester peptide. These differences in the inhibition of the novel parasite protease may allow it to be exploited as a chemotherapeutic target.

Amino Acid Sequence↗