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G Windholz

Publications and source records attributed to G Windholz.

At least 19 recordsLinked to original sources
PubMed2000

The neurophysiological aspects of Pavlov's theory of higher nervous activity: in honor of the 150th anniversary of Pavlov's birth.

Whereas Ivan P. Pavlov (1849-1936) is well-known for his work on classical conditioning, his contribution to neuroscience, particularly his interest in the function of neural centers in the central nervous system, is not as widely known. During the last three decades of his life, Pavlov explored cortical processes by salivary reflex conditioning, a method he used to develop his theory of higher nervous activity. This theory outlined the function of the brain in higher organisms in their interaction with the changing environmental contingencies. As early as 1908, Pavlov outlined a neurophysiological theory as the physiological basis of his theory of higher nervous activity. He maintained that the neural processes of excitation and inhibition irradiate and concentrate among the cortical neural centers. Most of all, he emphasized the plasticity of the cortex in higher organisms' in the Darwinian struggle for existence.

Brain↗
PubMed1999

Soviet psychiatrists under Stalinist duress: the design for a new Societ psychiatry and its demise.

A Scientific Session of the USSR Academy of Sciences and the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences met in 1950 in Moscow, to comply with the order of I.V. Stalin to institutionalize the theory of higher nervous activity of I.P. Pavlov. This Scientific Session decreed that annual scientific conferences should be held to consider problems related to Pavlovian physiology. In response to this call, a session on the Physiological Teachings of the Academician I. P. Pavolv on Psychiatry and Neuropathology was convened in Moscow in 1951. Certain influential Soviet psychiatrists - V.A. Giliarovski, M.O. Gurevich and A. S. Shmarian were condemned for adhering to anti-Marxist ideology and to psychiatric theories conceived by Western psychiatrists. The named psychiatrists acknowledged the correctness of the accusations, admitted their errors, and promised in the future to follow Pavlov's teachings on psychiatry. The session's Presidium urged the development of a New Soviet Psychiatry based upon experimental and clinical findings and consistent with the Pavlovian conceptualization of higher nervous activity, which considered pychiatric and neurotic syndromes in terms of the dynamic localization of the brain's functions. Long-range consequences of the 1951 session are considered.

Academies and Institutes↗
PubMed1999

Protopopov's ideas on habit formation and their relation to the Pavlovian theory of higher nervous activity.

In 1929 Viktor P. Protopopov began to replicate E. L. Thorndike's animal experiments on habit acquisition. To determine the conditions necessary for habit formation, Protopopov used the natural experiment method, in which dogs encountered environments that prevented them from reaching a stimulus-bait. Not all dogs acquired the behavior necessary for obtaining the bait. Explaining the results within the framework of the Pavlovian theory of higher nervous activity, Protopopov concluded that habits were acquired when an active animal provoked by a bait-stimulus encountered an environmental barrier. The dogs tried a series of phylogenetic behaviors until the stimulus-bait was reached. The latter movements were retained, forming an ontogenetic habit. The dogs also learned not to produce the unsuccessful movements. In accord with the Pavlovian theory, individual differences in habit formation were related to temperament types. A critique of the Thorndikian Law of Effect is provided in terms of the Pavlovian theory of higher nervous activity.

Animals↗
PubMed1998

Pavlov's conceptualization of voluntary movements within the framework of the theory of higher nervous activity.

Pavlov became interested in the nature of voluntary movements after receiving Konorski and Miller's letter in 1928 describing their experiments on conditioning of motor movements in dogs. Their paradigmatic experiment involved presenting an indifferent stimulus, followed by passive raising of the dog's leg and then reinforcement. If the same stimulus was provided during a number of trials, the animal lifted its corresponding leg. In 1928 Pavlov asked his students to condition motor movements in his laboratory. Although their findings were equivocal, Pavlov incorporated the so-called voluntary movements into his theory of higher nervous activity. Voluntary movements were responses to external environmental contingencies. On the cortical level, the motor analyzer's cells had both afferent and efferent functions. In Pavlov's view, the motor analyzer's cells established connections with the afferent cells of other sensory analyzers. Pavlov held that motor movements, as responses to external and internal environments, give humans the illusion of voluntary behavior.

Animals↗
PubMed1997

The 1950 Joint Scientific Session: Pavlovians as the accusers and the accused.

In 1950, Stalin and the Soviet Government prevailed upon the USSR Academy of Sciences and the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences to organize the 1950 Joint Scientific Session for the purpose of formalizing the teachings of I.P. Pavlov. During the Session, some of Pavlov's erstwhile students--the Pavlovians--split into accusers and accused. The more prominent of the latter were denounced for deviating from the orthodox Pavlovian path, and urged to admit their mistakes, to work within the framework of Pavlov's theory of higher nervous activity, and to avoid Western influence. Within this context, the travail of the prominent Pavlovian physiologist L. A. Orbeli is discussed. Contemporary Russian historians and scientists, evaluating the consequences of the 1950 Joint Scientific Session, point out its negative effects; namely, the general moral decline of Soviet physiologists pressured to accept a dogmatic ideology, the lowering of the quality of research in physiology, and the self-imposed exclusion of Soviet physiology from the worldwide scientific community.

Academies and Institutes↗
PubMed1996

Pavlov's conceptualization of paranoia within the theory of higher nervous activity.

In 1934, I. P. Pavlov conceptualized paranoia within his theory of higher nervous activity. The conceptualization was based on the case study method used in the Psychiatric Clinic where Pavlov observed five cases diagnosed by psychiatrists as paranoid states. Furthermore, experiments with dogs as subjects produced behaviours that appeared analogous to paranoiac characteristics observed in the clinic. Pavlov's paranoia theory did not differ much from Ernst Kretschmer's 1927 explanation of the formation of paranoia. Hereditary predisposition and traumatic life experiences make, according to Pavlov, some centres in the brain more active than nearby areas, which results in preoccupation with certain ideas. Imbalance between neural excitation and inhibition creates a condition where weak external stimuli produce strong reactions, which explains paranoiac overreaction to the feeling of inferiority. Some suggestions as to Pavlov's interest in paranoia are offered.

Brain↗
PubMed1996

Pavlov's conceptualization of the dynamic stereotype in the theory of higher nervous activity.

David Joravsky (1989) alleges that Ivan Petrovich Pavlov's theory of higher nervous activity fails to explain "most forms of complex behavior" because establishment of second-order and third-order chains of conditional reflexes was not feasible. Yet, Pavlov (1951a), relying on experimental evidence, some of which is presented, held that the interaction of higher organisms with the external environment was based on the dynamic stereotype, that is, on the integration in the cortical hemispheres of neural traces coming from the external and internal environments. In its formulation in the 1930s, Pavlov's theory was dynamic, not associative. It postulated the synthesis of conditioned reflexes, not associative chains of conditioned reflexes.

Central Nervous System↗
PubMed1995

Psychiatric treatment and the condition of the mentally disturbed at Berlin's Charité in the early decades of the nineteenth century.

The life of the mentally disturbed in psychiatric institutions during the first decades of the nineteenth century has been many times described by psychiatrists connected with those institutions. The accuracy of these accounts is, however, difficult to ascertain because independent testimonies are rare. Yet, such material on the conditions at the Psychiatric Section of Charité Hospital in Berlin, which was at that time Prussia's leading psychiatric institution, is extant. This material pertains to the criminal trial proceedings against Ernst Horn, the Second Director at Charité, who in 1811 was charged with malfeasance and negligent homicide in the treatment of a mentally disturbed patient. The materials describe the daily routine of the patients as well as the therapeutic procedures - both occupational therapy and the application of noxious agents. Consideration of the conditions and therapeutic treatments of the mentally disturbed at this time is important because these were the formative years of institutionalized psychiatry which have to some extent, influenced practices during the rest of the century.

Germany↗
PubMed1995

Pavlov on the conditioned reflex method and its limitations.

Pavlov's aim was to use the salivary conditioning method to investigate the function of the brain of higher animals in their adaptation to the external environment. The salivary reflex, according to Pavlov, was of minor biological significance but a good indicator of the subtle changes in the brain under different experimental conditions. To account for conditioned reflex phenomena, Pavlov faced two alternatives: to offer an objective (physiological) or a subjective (psychological) explanation. In 1901, after a bitter conflict with his disciple A. T. Snarskiy, Pavlov chose the first alternative. During the next decades, Pavlov provided reasons for this decision: The physiological approach (a) avoids anthropomorphizing or speculations about the dogs' subjective experiences, and (b) permits the explanation of observed phenomena which the subjective method is not capable of doing. Pavlov realized that the conditioned reflex method has a limitation; it cannot be used in the study of human subjects because their thinking interferes with experimental results.

Conditioning, Classical↗
PubMed1992

Pavlov's conceptualization of learning.

Introductory texts in psychology create the misleading impression that I. P. Pavlov was concerned solely with conditioned reflexes. In fact, influenced by Woodworth's Contemporary Schools of Psychology (1931), Pavlov also became interested in learning. Pavlov proposed a two-factor learning theory according to which all learning was based on association, but conditioning and trial and error learning had specific functions. According to Pavlov, conditioned reflexes were temporary and unstable and therefore more flexible in the interaction of higher organisms with the changing environment. Trial and error learning provided knowledge and was relatively more stable. Scientific discovery was based on facts obtained by trial and error; valid relations were reinforced by experimental results, whereas incorrect relationships were extinguished. Some suggestions are made that would allow authors of introductory texts to describe more informatively the contributions of Pavlov to modern psychology.

Animals↗
PubMed1990

Pavlov and the Pavlovians in the laboratory.

The general character of the Pavlovians and their role in the experimental investigation of conditioned reflexes is discussed. From 1897 to 1936, Ivan P. Pavlov had at least 146 co-workers and he was closely involved in their experimental work. The social background, nationality, and gender of the Pavlovians are described together with the daily routine in the laboratories. It is pointed out that, despite Pavlov's authoritarian style, the Pavlovians characterized him as the epitome of a scholar and an admirable human being. It is concluded that the work in the laboratories was truly a cooperative effort between Pavlov and his co-workers.

Academies and Institutes↗
PubMed1987

The explicitly stated rationale for the involuntary commitment of the mentally ill given by the nineteenth-century German-speaking psychiatrists.

The contemporary practice of involuntary commitment to psychiatric institutions of individuals diagnosed as mentally ill is based upon practices established by psychiatrists in the nineteenth century. The justifications given by nineteenth-century German-speaking psychiatrists for involuntary commitment are considered. An examination of sixty-seven texts by German-speaking psychiatrists reveals that involuntary commitment was justified more often as benefiting the mentally ill individual than as benefiting society. Justification for involuntary commitment was made somewhat more frequently during the second part of the nineteenth century than during the first part.

Beneficence↗
PubMed1985

Psychiatric commitments of religious dissenters in Tsarist and Soviet Russia: two case studies.

Recent literature suggests that involuntary commitment of dissenters to psychiatric institutions in the Soviet Union is politically motivated. It may be useful to consider two documented cases of commitment from two different historical periods in Russia: the case of Kondratii A. Malevannyi during the Tsarist regime and the case of Patient Pr. during Stalin's rule. Allegedly, both Malevannyi and Patient Pr. claimed to be Jesus Christ. Their public behavior attracted the attention of authorities. Since such behavior was illegal, both could have been charged in court or exiled by administrative action. They were neither charged nor exiled. Instead, both were diagnosed by psychiatrists as paranoiacs and were involuntarily committed. The diagnoses and commitments were challenged by L. N. Tolstoi and I. P. Pavlov. The commitment decisions were consonant with contemporary Western psychiatric practice that conceptualized deviant behavior in terms of "mental illness." The cases suggest that the present commitment of dissenters in the Soviet Union may be based upon a psychiatric judgment, although political factors may be relevant. A reliable documentation regarding current practices is necessary before any definite conclusions can be made.

Commitment of Persons with Psychiatric Disorders↗
PubMed1983

Pavlov's position toward American behaviorism.

Pavlov's development of the conditional reflex theory coincided with the rise of American behaviorism. Substituting an objective physiology for a subjective psychology, Pavlov saw in the rise of American behaviorism a clear confirmation of his method and theory. But in the early 1930s, Lashley attacked Pavlov's theory of specific cerebral localization of function, proposing instead the concept of an internal cerebral organization; Guthrie objected to Pavlov's centralist interpretation of conditioning, proposing instead a peripheralist interpretation; while Hull challenged Pavlov's theory of sleep and hypnosis as the manifestations of inhibition. Pavlov replied with critiques of Lashley's, Guthrie's, and Hull's views, and, convinced that Lashley and Guthrie misunderstood his position, repeated his method's and theory's basic propositions. Yet, Pavlov never gave up the expectation that American behaviorism would accept his conditional reflex theory and saw in Hunter's 1932 statements a support of his assumptions.

Animals↗