Flavor principles visiting a laboratory: a welcome call, but was it too hasty?
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Child↗
Biomedical subjects
H Tuorila
Publications and source records attributed to H Tuorila.
Predicting the intent to purchase unfamiliar and familiar cheeses: the effects of attitudes, expected liking and food neophobia.
The attitude model of the theory of reasoned action (TRA) has been applied mainly to predicting the choice of familiar foods; however, the choice of unfamiliar foods may be governed by distinct factors. In the present study, 92 females rated their attitudes and subjective norms about the purchase intentions of two familiar and two unfamiliar cheeses, and the expected and actual pleasantness of them. They also completed the food neophobia scale, which measures the tendency to avoid novel foods. Neophobic persons rated the attitudes and expected and actual taste pleasantness lower than neophilics for all cheeses, except for the most familiar, mild cheese. This suggests that food neophobia also indicates the tendency not only to avoid, but also to dislike novel foods. Before tasting, attitudes and subjective norms together predicted the intent to purchase familiar cheeses better (R2=0.54 and 0.58) than for novel cheeses (R2=0.24 and 0.35); thus, the basic TRA model was not as useful in predicting intent to purchase unfamiliar as familiar cheeses. The predictions especially for the novel cheeses were clearly improved by including expected pleasantness ratings in the model. The usefulness of the food neophobia score as an additional predictor was not clearly supported. Attitudes and subjective norms measured before tasting were poor predictors of purchase intents after tasting, which implies the importance of taste and direct product experience in food choice.
Adult↗
Quantification of consumer attitudes to health and hedonic characteristics of foods.
Health and Taste Attitudes Questionnaires were developed to assess consumers' orientations toward the health and hedonic characteristics of foods. Items were generated in a qualitative study. The original 37 items on health and 44 on taste were rated from "strongly disagree" to "strongly agree" by a representative sample of 1005 Finnish adults (18-81 years). The number of items was reduced using factor and item analysis, resulting in 20 health- and 18 taste-related statements. Three health-related and three taste-related factors were extracted. The health-related factors were labelled as "General health interest", "Light product interest", and "Natural product interest". The taste-related factors were named "Craving for sweet foods", "Using food as a reward", and "Pleasure". Cronbach's alphas of the multi-item scales, based on the statements loading highly on each factor, ranged from 0.67 to 0.89. Age and gender affected the responses. Females were more interested in the health and taste aspects of foods than were males. Younger respondents were less concerned with health but more interested in taste than were older respondents. A preliminary test of predictive validity was conducted by analysing subjects' responses to foods with weak and strong connotations of health and taste, and currently the questionnaires are being validated with further behavioural tests.
Adolescent↗
Correlates of human food neophobia.
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Food Preferences↗
Effect of reduced-fat information on expected and actual hedonic and sensory ratings of sausage.
The effect of information about fat content on expected and actual sensory and hedonic ratings of regular- and reduced-fat Bologna sausages was studied using 115 young men. All the subjects rated the expected pleasantness, juiciness, saltiness and fattiness of "Bologna". Subsequently, a sub-group of subjects ("No information", N=54) rated the unlabelled samples after tasting. Another sub-group ("Information", N=61) rated the expected and actual pleasantness and attribute intensities of samples labelled as "Regular type of Bologna (20% fat)" and "Light Bologna (10% fat)". The samples were not rated significantly different by the "No information" group. In the "Information" group, "Light Bologna" was expected to be less fatty, less salty, less juicy and less pleasant than "Regular type of Bologna". After tasting, saltiness and fattiness of "Light Bologna" were rated lower while pleasantness and juiciness of the samples were not significantly different. Actual saltiness and fattiness of "Light Bologna" were assimilated to the low expected intensities. Even that the hedonic ratings of "Light" and "Regular type of Bologna" differed only slightly, low expected pleasantness, juiciness and other attribute intensities imply that young men would not choose the product. Other information strategies might result in better acceptance by this target group.
Adolescent↗
Serum leptin, food intake and preferences for sugar and fat in obese women.
OBJECTIVE: To examine the association of leptin with food intake and preferences for sugar and fat in obese humans. METHOD: Food intake and preferences for sugar and fat were measured in 35 obese women by a four-day food record and three hedonic tests, respectively. RESULTS: High fasting serum leptin concentration adjusted for body fat mass and dietary underreporting was associated with low dietary energy and fat intakes. In addition, trends towards lower preference for chocolate as well as for the taste of high-fat, low-sugar mixture were observed in those with higher leptin concentration. CONCLUSION: High serum leptin concentration could be associated in obese women with lower dietary energy and fat intakes, and possibly with the lower preference for fat. These findings need to be verified in further human studies.
Adult↗
Recalling sweet taste intensities in the presence and absence of other tastes.
Memory for sweet taste intensities in different media during 125 h was investigated using three concentrations (w/w) of sucrose: 4.21% (0.125 M), 8.28% (0.25 M) and 16.06% (0.5 M). Sucrose was dissolved in four media [water with no tastant and water with 0.73% (0.125 M) sodium chloride, 0.04% (0.002 M) citric acid and 0.04% (0.002 M) caffeine] as standard stimuli. Subjects (n = 39) were assigned into four groups, each group performing the memory task in one medium only. After tasting each standard the subjects reproduced the subjective taste intensity immediately and after 12 min and 1, 5, 25 and 125 h by mixing portions of low (0%) and high (29.75%; 1 M) concentrations (w/w) of sucrose and by tasting and retasting (ad libitum procedure). The produced sucrose concentrations increased significantly from the first session to the 125 h time interval. There was a significant difference between immediately reproduced standard concentrations and concentrations produced after all time intervals. Relative differences from standard (delta i/i) differed only between concentrations produced immediately and after 125 h time interval. The low (4.21%) concentration showed larger differences from standard than the high (16.06%) concentration. The added tastant had no effect on the results.
Adult↗
Ad libitum mixing in a taste memory task: methodological issues.
Ad libitum mixing, an application of the method of adjustment in food research, was investigated and evaluated for the purpose of taste memory research. The difference between ascending and descending runs in mixing was studied using a wide range of prefill concentrations lower and higher than standard. The effect of training was studied by comparing subjects with two or 10 replications in the first session where a standard was present as a reference. Results showing higher reproduced concentrations after a 25 h time interval than those produced immediately are consistent with earlier results from within-subject designs. Thus, the difference in recall performance did not depend on the design of the study. No difference between ascending and descending runs in the mixing was observed, thus the prefill concentrations did not affect the reproduction of a given standard. There was no significant difference between produced concentrations after two and 10 replications, although a non-significant trend towards improved performance following 10 replications was observed after the 25 h time interval.
Adult↗
Effect of umami taste on pleasantness of low-salt soups during repeated testing.
In the present study the effects of the umami substances, monosodium glutamate (0.2%) and 5'-ribonucleotides (0.05%), on the acceptance of low-salt soups in two groups of subjects, one with low-salt (n = 21) and the other with high-salt (n = 23) preferences were assessed. The groups were presented with soups containing 0.3% sodium chloride (low-salt group) and 0.5% sodium chloride (high-salt group). The subjects three times consumed leek-potato or minestrone soup with umami and three times the other soup without umami during six sessions over 5 weeks (sessions 2-7). In addition they tasted these and two other soups (lentil and mushroom soup) during sessions 1 and 8, during which they evaluated the pleasantness, taste intensity, and ideal saltiness of the soups with and without added umami. These ratings were higher when soups contained umami in both the low- and high-salt groups, and they remained higher regardless of which of the soups served for lunch contained umami. The low- and high-salt groups did not differ in pleasantness ratings, although the former rated the taste intensity of their soups higher and ideal saltiness closer to the ideal than did the latter. The pleasantness ratings of soups without umami were significantly lower at the end of the study than at the beginning, whereas those of soups with umami remained unchanged. These data suggest that the pleasantness of reduced-salt foods could be increased by addition of appropriate flavors.
Adult↗
Recalling taste intensities in sweetened and salted liquids.
The effect of training on recalling taste intensities over 6 weeks was studied using an ad libitum mixing procedure. Subjects tasted sweet and salty standards labeled as "weak' and "strong' (3 and 8% sucrose in redcurrant juice; 0.4 and 1.2% NaCl in beef broth). They subsequently mixed unsweetened and sweetened juice, and unsalted and salted broth, to produce taste intensities that corresponded to the standards. A minimum training (MT) group (n = 13) produced comparison stimuli by tasting and directly comparing with standards in one session only; an extensive training (ET) group (n = 13) did this in six sessions before producing comparison stimuli based on memory only at 1 h, 1 day, 1 week and 6 weeks. An upward bias (chemically determined concentrations of comparison stimuli exceeding those of standards) occurred at 1 day or 1 week in MT subjects for 'weak' and 'strong' sweetness, and for 'strong' saltiness, and sustained thereafter. The upward tendency was also observed in ET subjects but was significant only for 'strong' sweetness. It is important to recognize memory effects such as the one described, as they affect food perceptions and can be a major source of bias in sensory food research.
Adult↗
Consistency of liking and appropriateness ratings and their relation to consumption in a product test of ice cream.
The consistency of hedonic responses to three brands of vanilla ice cream over 5 weeks was examined using two procedures. Respondents (n = 40) came to the test after their usual lunch and rated their liking for ice creams side-by-side (three samples in one session) and after ad libitum consumption (one sample at a time). The quantity of ice cream consumed in ad libitum procedure was recorded. Respondents also assessed the appropriateness of the three samples of vanilla ice cream to ten usage situations, including "as a dessert" which was the context in the test situation. The consistency of hedonic responses was low over replicates (r = 0.03 to 0.48). In the side-by-side condition, only 48% of the liking responses in replicates were within one point (not at all = 1, extremely = 9), and 63% in the after-consumption condition. Some respondents ate more of all brands than other subjects did in both replicates, unrelated to differences in liking. The appropriateness ratings of brands were similar but the ratings of appropriateness "as a dessert" differentiated the brands. In the after-consumption condition the ratings of liking and appropriateness, together with consumption measures, appeared to be slightly more consistent at the individual level than those made in the side-by-side situation.
Adult↗
Three-factor eating questionnaire and the use and liking of sweet and fat among dieters.
The aim of this study was to examine whether the cognitive restraint, disinhibition and hunger factors of the three-factor eating questionnaire (TFEQ) can differentiate between low and high use, desired use and liking of various sugar- and fat-containing foods. A questionnaire with items on 44 foods and the TFEQ was obtained from 253 women taking part in weight reduction program. Principal component analysis was used to divide the foods into ten groups by their reported usage. The cognitive restraint factor was related to the reported use of some food groups such as fruit-based sweet foods, butter, margarine and regular-fat cheese, but not to the desired use or liking. High disinhibition and hunger scores were related to frequency of reported and desired use and to liking of several food groups (e.g., sweets, pastries served with coffee, fruit-based sweet foods, butter and margarine). Those scoring highest on cognitive restraint and lowest on disinhibition and hunger reported using all food groups less frequently than those with the lowest scores on restraint and the highest scores on disinhibition and hunger, except low-fat cheese and yogurt. These groups also differed in the desired use and liking of most sweet foods.
Adolescent↗
Role of sensory and cognitive information in the enhancement of certainty and liking for novel and familiar foods.
Expected and actual liking for novel and familiar foods were examined under various conditions of sensory and verbal information with 121 subjects who differed in food neophobia. The possible mediating roles of uncertainty about product identity and resemblance to familiar foods were also investigated. Subjects were divided into three verbal information groups (no information; product name; ingredient and use information) balanced for neophobia, age and gender. All groups rated test samples under three sensory conditions: (1) appearance only, (2) appearance and smell and (3) appearance, smell and taste. Neophilics rated novel foods more favorably than did neophobics. Accumulating sensory experience (appearance, smell, taste) decreased liking for novel foods but increased liking for familiar foods. Verbal information generally increased liking for all samples. Liking and certainty of product identity were curvilinearly related for novel foods, but linearly related for familiar foods. Liking for products judged to closely resemble the test product predicted up to 64% of the variability in expected and actual liking. Eight weeks later, subjects rated one of the two novel foods higher than in the first exposure, but no other exposure effects were observed. Our data suggest that information (possibly via reduced uncertainty), resemblance to more familiar foods, and exposure contribute to reducing initially negative responses to novel foods; furthermore, neophobia decreases liking for novel foods similarly at all levels of sensory input (visual, smell and taste).
Adult↗
Antecedents and consequences of expectations related to fat-free and regular-fat foods.
Hedonic and sensory expectations related to fat-free and regular-fat pound cake, crackers and American cheese were studied with 97 subjects divided into three subgroups, each testing one type of product. Four study phases were separated by 1-month intervals: (1) a questionnaire on demographics, dietary practices and consumption of the test products, (2) intensity ratings of sensory attributes and ratings of liking of unlabeled fat-free and regular-fat samples, (3) ratings of expected attribute intensities and liking in response to product labels of "fat-free" and "regular", and subsequent ratings of these samples and (4) phase 3 repeated with opposite (incorrect) labels. Fat-free products were expected to be less liked than their regular counterparts; however, only cheese was less liked in actual taste tests. Expected liking was best predicted by familiarity with the product and, in the case of fat-free products, by the extent to which a person substituted low-fat for high-fat foods. Actual liking was best predicted by the effect of labeling and by expectations. The expected intensities of sensory attributes were uniformly higher in regular than in fat-free products. Both sensory and hedonic ratings of labeled samples changed in the direction of expectations, as compared to baseline values, supporting an assimilation model of the effect of disconfirmed expectations on sensory perception and consumer acceptance.
Adult↗
Garlic: a sensory pleasure or a social nuisance?
A total of 100 female and male shoppers in Helsinki were interviewed to evaluate beliefs, attitudes and norms concerning the consumption of garlic. In a subsequent postal questionnaire, the annoyance related to the smell of garlic, compared with other social odors, was also measured. The most frequent beliefs about garlic pertained to its good taste, unpleasant smell, and healthiness. Users and non-users showed distinctly different belief patterns. Sweat and alcohol were considered the most annoying social odors, and garlic and perfume/aftershave the least so. The Fishbein-Ajzen model, in which individual beliefs and their evaluations as well as subjective norms were used as predictors, explained 35-36% of the variation of the reported consumption and intention to use garlic. The predictive power of the model rose to 56-62% when past behavior was included as a third independent variable. Although the predictive power of attitudes was greater than that of subjective norms, the latter were also significant predictors. Thus, use of garlic is a somewhat unusual form of food-related behavior in that it is controlled by both attitudes and normative factors.
Adolescent↗
Variety seeking in the consumption of spread and cheese.
Consumers' (n = 807) desire for variety, as measured by the food-specific VARSEEK scale, was related to reported usage and purchase behavior for spread and cheese. Subjects' scoring high in variety seeking tendency showed more exploratory tendencies in purchase behavior, vicarious exploration and use innovativeness than did those scoring low on the scale. Variation reported in the use of cheese was related to variety seeking tendency more strongly than the variation in the use of spreads. The variation in cheese purchases was particularly high for well-educated white collar workers between 31 and 50 years old and for female subjects living in urban areas of Finland. Some cross-product consistency in the variation in purchase behavior was found. The results suggest that certain product characteristics, such as sensory variation between alternatives, may determine whether the intrinsic desire for variety is expressed in product choice.
Adolescent↗
When is eating "real"?
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Feeding Behavior↗
Pleasantness ratings and consumption of open sandwiches with varying NaCl and acid contents.
The objective was to compare taste-and-spit pleasantness ratings of open sandwiches to ratings after ad libitum consumption. In the latter test, open sandwiches were ingested one at a time at a laboratory breakfast. Three rye breads of different acid and NaCl concentrations (non-sour + normal NaCl, sour + low NaCl, sour + normal NaCl) were evaluated with butter or margarine with two levels of NaCl (1 or 2 per cent). Subjects (N = 27) rated the samples more pleasant after consumption than in taste-and-spit tests. Mean pleasantness ratings by sample in taste-and-spit and postconsumption tests correlated with the amount of bread consumed (r = 0.63, r = 0.82, respectively). The taste-and-spit ratings of individual subjects correlated poorly with the amount of bread consumed, only three correlation coefficients out of 27 being significant. Taste-and-spit pleasantness ratings can perhaps be used to predict the average consumption of a product but not consumption by individual subjects. The laboratory tests should be developed further to reflect better food acceptability in natural conditions.
Adult↗