The venous territories (venosomes) of the human body: experimental study and clinical implications.
The venous architecture of the integument and the underlying deep tissues was studied in six total-body human fresh cadavers and a series of isolated regional studies of the limbs and torso. A radiopaque lead oxide mixture was injected, and the integument and deep tissues were dissected and radiographed. The sites of the venous perforators were plotted and traced to their underlying parent veins that accompany the source (segmental) arteries. A series of cross-sectional studies were made in one subject to illustrate the course of the perforators between the integument and the deep tissues. The veins were dissected under magnification to identify the site and orientation of the valves. Results revealed a large number of valveless (oscillating) veins within the integument and deep tissues that link adjacent valved venous territories and allow equilibration of flow and pressure throughout the tissue. Where choke arteries define the arterial territories, they are matched by boundaries of oscillating veins in the venous studies. The venous architecture is a continuous network of arcades that follow the connective-tissue framework of the body. The veins converge from mobile to fixed areas, and they "hitchhike" with nerves. The venous drainage mirrors the arterial supply in the deep tissues and in most areas of the integument in the head, neck, and torso. In the limbs, the stellate pattern of the venous perforators is modified by longitudinal channels in the subdermal network. However, when an island flap is raised, these longitudinal channels are disconnected, and once again the arterial and venous patterns match. Our venous studies add strength to the angiosome concept. Where source arteries supply a composite block of tissue, we have demonstrated radiologically and by microdissection that the branches of these arteries are accompanied by veins that drain in the opposite direction and return to the same locus. Hence each angiosome consists of matching arteriosomes and venosomes. The clinical implications of these results are discussed with particular reference to the design of flaps, the delay phenomenon, venous free flaps, the pathogenesis of flap necrosis, the "muscle pump," varicose veins, and venous ulceration.