Invariants for time-dependent Hamiltonian systems.
An exact invariant is derived for n-degree-of-freedom Hamiltonian systems with general time-dependent potentials. The invariant is worked out in two equivalent ways. In the first approach, we define a special Ansatz for the invariant and determine its time-dependent coefficients. In the second approach, we perform a two-step canonical transformation of the initially time-dependent Hamiltonian to a time-independent one. The invariant is found to contain a function of time f(2)(t), defined as a solution of a linear third-order differential equation whose coefficients depend in general on the explicitly known configuration space trajectory that follows from the system's time evolution. It is shown that the invariant can be interpreted as the time integral of an energy balance equation. Our result is applied to a one-dimensional, time-dependent, damped non-linear oscillator, and to a three-dimensional system of Coulomb-interacting particles that are confined in a time-dependent quadratic external potential. We finally show that our results can be used to assess the accuracy of numerical simulations of time-dependent Hamiltonian systems.