Biomedical subjects

K A Brogden

Publications and source records attributed to K A Brogden.

At least 19 recordsLinked to original sources

PubMed2003

Defensin-induced adaptive immunity in mice and its potential in preventing periodontal disease.

The severity of periodontal disease is dependent on a combination of host, microbial agent and environmental factors. One strong correlate related to periodontal disease pathogenesis is the immune status of the host. Here we show that human neutrophil peptide (HNP) defensins or human beta-defensins (HBD), co-administered intranasally with the antigen ovalbumin (OVA), induce unique immune responses that if used with microbial antigens may have the potential to hinder the pathogenesis of periodontal disease. C57BL/6 mice were immunized intranasally with phosphate buffered saline (PBS) containing 1 micro g HNP-1, HNP-2, HBD1 or HBD2 with and without 50 microg OVA. At 21 days, isotypes and subclasses of OVA-specific antibodies were determined in saliva, serum, nasal wash, bronchoalveolar lavage fluid, and fecal extracts. OVA-stimulated splenic lymphoid cell cultures from immunized mice were assessed for interferon (IFN)-gamma, Interleukin (IL)-4 and IL-10. In comparison with mice immunized with only OVA, HNP-1 and HBD2 induced significantly higher (P < 0.05) OVA-specific serum IgG, lower, but not significant, serum IgM and significantly lower (P < 0.05) IFN-gamma. In contrast, HNP-2 induced low OVA-specific serum IgG and higher, but not significant, serum IgM. HBD1 induced significantly higher (P < 0.05) OVA-specific serum IgG, higher, but not significant, serum IgM, and significantly higher (P < 0.05) IL-10. The elevated serum IgG subclasses contained IgG1 and IgG2b.

Adjuvants, Immunologic↗

PubMed2003

The effects of danofloxacin and tilmicosin on neutrophil function and lung consolidation in beef heifer calves with induced Pasteurella (Mannheimia) haemolytica pneumonia.

Pneumonia caused by Pasteurella (Mannheimia) haemolytica was induced in weaned beef heifer calves, approximately 6 months of age. Calves were treated at 20 h after challenge with therapeutic doses of danofloxacin or tilmicosin. Peripheral blood neutrophils were collected at 3, 24 and 48 h after treatment. The ex vivo effects on neutrophil function, neutrophil apoptosis, and hematological parameters were examined, as was the effect on percentage lung consolidation. Neutrophil function assays included random migration under agarose, cytochrome C reduction, iodination, Staphylococcus aureus ingestion, chemotaxis, and antibody-dependent and antibody-independent cell-mediated cytotoxicity. Apoptosis was determined using a cell death detection kit. Killing was performed at 72 h after treatment. Statistical comparisons were made among the three groups of challenged-treated animals: saline, danofloxacin, and tilmicosin. Comparisons were also made between nonchallenged nontreated animals (NCH) and challenged saline-treated animals. There were no significant differences for any of the neutrophil function assays or neutrophil apoptosis among the challenged-treated groups. This suggests that danofloxacin and tilmicosin have no clinically significant effects on neutrophil function or apoptosis. There were also no significant differences in percentage lung consolidation among the challenged-treated groups. Significant differences were found between the NCH calves and the challenged saline-treated calves in several neutrophil assays, which were attributed to effects of P. haemolytica infection.

Animals↗

PubMed2002

A selectin inhibitor decreases neutrophil infiltration during acute Mannheimia haemolytica pneumonia.

The degree to which the selectin inhibitor TBC1269 reduces neutrophil infiltration in specific microscopic locations of the lung during acute pneumonia of neonates was determined. Neonatal calves were inoculated intrabronchially with Mannheimia (Pasteurella) haemolytica or saline, and lung tissue was collected at 2 and 6 hours postinoculation (PI). One 6-hour group inoculated with M. haemolytica received TBC1269 intravenously before and after inoculation with M. haemolytica. Infiltrates of neutrophils were significantly higher in the alveolar lumen and septae but lower in the bronchial lumen and epithelium at 6 hours PI than at 2 hours PI. Significantly fewer neutrophils (P < 0.05) were present in the alveolar lumen and septae, and the bronchiolar lumen and lamina propria in the lungs of TBC1269-treated calves compared with untreated calves at 6 hours PI. TBC1269 did not alter the infiltration into bronchi and blood vessels or the expression of the selectin-independent adhesion molecule, ICAM-1. This work suggests that during acute pneumonia of neonates 1) neutrophil infiltrates progressively increase in the alveolar lumens and septae but decrease in the bronchial lumen and epithelium with time, 2) TBC1269 reduces neutrophil infiltration into specific regions of alveoli and bronchioles rather than uniformly throughout the lung, and 3) selectin inhibition does not affect the location and intensity of ICAM-1 expression.

Animals↗

PubMed2002

Cellular distribution of anionic antimicrobial peptide in normal lung and during acute pulmonary inflammation.

Anionic peptides (APs) are small antimicrobial peptides present in human and ovine lung. In this study APs were also detected in bovine lung, and production of APs in lungs with acute inflammation induced by various stimuli was determined. The distribution and intensity of APs were determined by immunohistochemistry in lungs of 1) neonatal calves (1-3 days of age) inoculated with Mannheimia (Pasteurella) haemolytica, a known inducer of the bovine beta-defensin lingual antimicrobial peptide (LAP) or pyrogen-free saline (PFS), and 2) growing calves (3 months of age) similarly inoculated with M. haemolytica, a lipopolysaccharide (LPS) from M. haemolytica, an LPS-associated protein from M. haemolytica, or PFS. APs were also detected by western blots with the same antibody in lungs of the calves above, as well as in calves inoculated with Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and an adult cow. Anionic peptide (AP) immunoreactivity was detected in bands (approximate weights) in the western blots of lung at 28-30 (strongest signal), 31, 45, and 52-60 kd regardless of inoculum. The adult cow lacked bands at 45 kd, but it had additional bands at 64 (inconsistently) and 35-38 kd. All these band sizes are consistent with those of the western blots of human and ovine lung. The cellular distribution of APs in lung of neonatal and growing cattle was similar to that in lung of human and sheep. In lungs with acute inflammation induced by live bacteria, LPS, or protein, AP distribution and intensity were similar to those in control (PFS-inoculated) lungs and slightly decreased in bronchioles. This work demonstrates that AP is present in lung of cattle and is thereby conserved among two ruminant species and man. Distribution and intensity of AP production are not enhanced by infection or acute inflammation and are decreased in bronchioles, which suggests that AP is not induced like beta-defensins such as LAP, but, instead, is produced constitutively.

Acute Disease↗

PubMed2001

Mast cell density and substance P-like immunoreactivity during the initiation and progression of lung lesions in ovine Mannheimia (Pasteurella) haemolytica pneumonia.

To determine the density of mast cells (MCs) and the extent of substance P (SP) immunoreactivity during initiation and progression of pneumonic pasteurellosis (PP), 18 lambs were inoculated intrabronchially with Mannheimia (Pasteurella) haemolytica or saline, and lung tissue was collected at 1, 15 and 45 days post-inoculation (n=3, each group). Additionally, the left (non-inoculated) contralateral lungs in bacteria-inoculated animals were collected as controls. At 1 day after bacterial inoculation the lungs had typical M. haemolytica lesions. These pneumonic lesions had fewer numbers of MCs and reduced histamine content. Macrophages infiltrating some of the inflamed areas were strongly immunoreactive for SP. At 15 days, MCs remained scarce at sites where lung damage persisted, i.e. pyogranulomatous foci, but were increased in number in areas of interstitial damage. Pulmonary ganglion neurons were strongly immunoreactive for SP. By 45 days the fibrosing changes became more defined as pleural fibrosis, fibrosing alveolitis, alveolar epithelial hyperplasia and bronchiolitis obliterans. These lungs had increased numbers of MCs, but histamine content was not different from saline- and non-inoculated left lungs. Substance P immunoreactivity occurred only in nerves and was scarce and mild. This work demonstrates that MC density decreases initially with PP, but increases with progression of PP. SP fibres tend to be decreased during the initiation and at 45 days of PP, but other cells, such as macrophages and neuronal ganglion cells, produce substance P during progression of PP and thereby constitute an additional source of substance P.

Animals↗

PubMed2001

Suppression of Mannheimia (Pasteurella) haemolytica serovar 1 infection in lambs by intrapulmonary administration of ovine antimicrobial anionic peptide.

In this study, the efficacy of ovine antimicrobial anionic peptide (AP) was assessed in a lamb model of acute pneumonia. A single intratracheal dose of the peptide, H-DDDDDDD-OH (0.5 mg) reduced pulmonary inflammation and the concentration of Mannheimia (Pasteurella) haemolytica in infected lung tissue. Administration of H-DDDDDDD-OH after infection was more effective in reducing the consolidation and lesion scores at the deposition site than its administration prior to infection. Hence, the in vivo effectiveness of AP suggests that it may have applications in the treatment of pulmonary infections. Further studies are needed to confirm these findings and also to determine the optimal doses and intervals of H-DDDDDDD-OH therapy.

Amino Acid Sequence↗

PubMed2001

The ovine cathelicidin SMAP29 kills ovine respiratory pathogens in vitro and in an ovine model of pulmonary infection.

Cathelicidins are antimicrobial peptides from sheep (SMAP29 and SMAP34), rabbits (CAP11 and CAP18), rodents (CRAMP), and humans (FALL39, LL37, and h/CAP18). In a broth microdilution assay against nine ovine pathogens, SMAP29, SMAP34, mouse CRAMP, CAP18, CAP18(31), CAP18(28), CAP18(22), and CAP18(21a) were the most active, with MICs as low as 0.6 microg/ml. Other cathelicidins were less active. In lambs with pneumonia, 0.5 mg of SMAP29 reduced the concentration of bacteria in both bronchoalveolar lavage fluid and consolidated pulmonary tissues. Hence, the antimicrobial activity of SMAP29 suggests that it has applications in the treatment of respiratory tract infections.

Animals↗

PubMed2001

Congeners of SMAP29 kill ovine pathogens and induce ultrastructural damage in bacterial cells.

SMAP29, an ovine cathelicidin, was systematically altered to create a family of 23 related peptides for MIC and minimum bactericidal concentration determinations. SMAP28, SMAP29, and a derivative of SMAP29 called ovispirin were all antimicrobial. However, many congeners of SMAP29 and ovispirin were not as active as the parent molecules. With immunoelectron microscopy, SMAP29 was seen on membranes and within the cytoplasm of Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1.

Amino Acid Sequence↗

PubMed2001

Gallinacin-3, an inducible epithelial beta-defensin in the chicken.

Gallinacin-3 and gallopavin-1 (GPV-1) are newly characterized, epithelial beta-defensins of the chicken (Gallus gallus) and turkey (Meleagris gallopavo), respectively. In normal chickens, the expression of gallinacin-3 was especially prominent in the tongue, bursa of Fabricius, and trachea. It also occurred in other organs, including the skin, esophagus, air sacs, large intestine, and kidney. Tracheal expression of gallinacin-3 increased significantly after experimental infection of chickens with Haemophilus paragallinarum, whereas its expression in the tongue, esophagus, and bursa of Fabricius was unaffected. The precursor of gallinacin-3 contained a long C-terminal extension not present in the prepropeptide. By comparing the cDNA sequences of gallinacin-3 and GPV-1, we concluded that a 2-nucleotide insertion into the gallinacin-3 gene had induced a frameshift that read through the original stop codon and allowed the chicken propeptide to lengthen. The striking structural resemblance of the precursors of beta-defensins to those of crotamines (highly toxic peptides found in rattlesnake venom) supports their homology, even though defensins are specialized to kill microorganisms and crotamines are specialized to kill much larger prey.

Amino Acid Sequence↗

PubMed2001

Effects of the synthetic selectin inhibitor TBC1269 on tissue damage during acute Mannheimia haemolytica-induced pneumonia in neonatal calves.

OBJECTIVE: To determine effects of the selectin inhibitor TBC1269 on neutrophil-mediated pulmonary damage during acute Mannheimia haemolytica-induced pneumonia in newborn calves. ANIMALS: Eighteen 1- to 3-day-old colostrum-deprived calves. PROCEDURE: Mannheimia haemolytica or saline (0.9% NaCl) solution was inoculated in both cranial lung lobes of 12 and 6 calves, respectively. Calves were euthanatized 2 (saline, n = 3; M haemolytica, n = 4) or 6 hours (saline, n = 3; M haemolytica, n = 8) after inoculation. Four M haemolytica-inoculated calves euthanatized at 6 hours also received TBC1269 (25 mg/kg, IV) 30 minutes before and 2 hours after inoculation. Conjugated diene (CD) concentrations, inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) expression, and apoptotic cell counts were determined in lung specimens collected during necropsy. RESULTS: Conjugated diene concentrations were significantly increased in all M haemolytica-inoculated groups, compared with saline-inoculated groups. Calves treated with TBC1269 had decreased concentrations of CD, compared with untreated calves, although the difference was not significant. Number of apoptotic neutrophils and macrophages increased significantly inTBC1269-treated calves, compared with untreated calves. Inducible nitric oxide synthase was expressed by epithelial cells and leukocytes. However, iNOS was less abundant in airway epithelial cells associated with inflammatory exudates. Degree of iNOS expression was similar between TBC1269-treated and untreated calves. CONCLUSIONS: Mannheimia haemolytica infection in neonatal calves resulted in pulmonary tissue damage and decreased epithelial cell iNOS expression. The selectin inhibitor TCB1269 altered, but did not completely inhibit, neutrophil-mediated pulmonary damage.

Animals↗

PubMed2001

Comparison of bronchoalveolar lavage fluid obtained from Mannheimia haemolytica-inoculated calves with and without prior treatment with the selectin inhibitor TBC1269.

OBJECTIVES: To determine effects of selectin inhibitor TBC1269 on neutrophil infiltration, and neutrophil-associated injury during pneumonia induced by Mannheimia haemolytica and concentration of antimicrobial anionic peptide (AAP) in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) as well as antimicrobial activity of BALF from healthy (control) neonatal calves, neonatal calves with M haemolytica-induced pneumonia, neonatal calves with prior treatment with TBC1269, and adult cattle. ANIMALS: Eighteen 1- to 3-day-old calves and 9 adult cattle. PROCEDURE: Calves were inoculated with M haemolytica or pyrogen-free saline (0.14M NaCl) solution into the right cranial lung lobe, and BALF was collected 2 or 6 hours after inoculation. Thirty minutes before and 2 hours after inoculation, 4 calves received TBC1269. The BALF collected from 9 adult cattle was used for comparison of BALF AAP concentration and antimicrobial activity. Protein concentration and neutrophil differential percentage and degeneration in BALF were determined. An ELISA and killing assay were used to determine BALF AAP concentration and antimicrobial activity, respectively. RESULTS: Total protein concentration was significantly decreased in BALF from calves receiving TBC1269. Similar concentrations of AAP were detected in BALF from all calves, which were 3-fold higher than those in BALF from adult cattle. However, BALF from neonates had little or no anti-M haemolytica activity. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: These results suggest that TBC1269 decreases pulmonary tissue injury in neonatal calves infected with M haemolytica. Although AAP is detectable in neonatal BALF at 3 times the concentration detected in adult BALF, neonatal BALF lacks antimicrobial activity for M haemolytica.

Animals↗

PubMed2000

The potential role of the Arthus and Shwartzman reactions in the pathogenesis of pneumonic pasteurellosis.

Pneumonic pasteurellosis (PP) is an economically important disease in cattle, sheep, and goats. Pasteurella haemolytica is commonly isolated from the severe fibrinopurulent pneumonia that characterize this respiratory syndrome. During infection, the bacteria produce leukotoxin (LKT) and lipopolysaccharide (LPS), both potent inducers of inflammation. Nonetheless, it has also been demonstrated that an exacerbated host's inflammatory response is responsible for the severe lung damage. Despite research in this field, the pathogenesis of PP is still incomplete. Two classical models of acute inflammatory response induced in laboratory animals, the Arthus and Shwartzman reactions, could explain the pathogenesis of the severe lung lesions that characterize PP.

Animals↗

PubMed2000

Response of the ruminant respiratory tract to Mannheimia (Pasteurella) haemolytica.

Pneumonia is a leading cause of loss to the sheep and cattle industry throughout the world. Mannheimia (Pasteurella) haemolytica is one of the most important respiratory pathogens of domestic ruminants and causes serious outbreaks of acute pneumonia in neonatal, weaned and growing lambs, calves, and goats. M. haemolytica is also an important cause of pneumonia in adult animals. Transportation, viral infections with agents such as infectious bovine rhinotracheitis virus, parainfluenza-3 virus or bovine respiratory syncytial virus, overcrowding, housing of neonates and weaned animals together and other stressful conditions predispose animals to M. haemolytica infection [1, 2]. This review assimilates some of the findings key to cellular and molecular responses of the lung from a pathologist's perspective. It includes some of what is known and underscores areas that are not fully understood.

Animals↗

PubMed2000

Reduction of pulmonary mast cells in areas of acute inflammation in calves with Mannheimia (Pasteurella) haemolytica pneumonia.

Mast cells in the left cranial pulmonary lobe of colostrum-deprived neonatal calves were quantified 2 and 6 h after intrabronchial inoculation with Mannheimia (Pasteurella) haemolytica A1. The mast cells were detected (1) immunohistochemically with a mouse anti-human mast cell tryptase monoclonal antibody, and (2) by metachromatic staining with low pH toluidine blue. A greater number of mast cells was demonstrated by the second method than by the first. At 6 h after inoculation, but not at 2 h, the number of mast cells was significantly reduced at the site of the main lesions. Treatment of calves with a sialyl Lewis mimetic (TBC1269) did not appreciably affect the results at 6 h.

Acute Disease↗

PubMed2000

Influence of beta(2)-integrin adhesion molecule expression and pulmonary infection with Pasteurella haemolytica on cytokine gene expression in cattle.

beta(2)-Integrins are leukocyte adhesion molecules composed of alpha (CD11a, -b, -c, or -d) and beta (CD18) subunit heterodimers. Genetic CD18 deficiency results in impaired neutrophil egress into tissues that varies between conducting airways and alveoli of the lung. In this study, we investigated whether CD18 deficiency in cattle affects proinflammatory cytokine (PIC) expression in pulmonary tissue after respiratory infection with Pasteurella haemolytica. Cattle were infected with P. haemolytica via fiberoptic deposition of organisms into the posterior part of the right cranial lung lobe. Animals were euthanized at 2 or 4 h postinoculation (p.i.), and tissues were collected to assess PIC gene expression using antisense RNA probes specific for bovine interleukin-1alpha (IL-1alpha), IL-1beta, IL-6, gamma interferon (IFN-gamma), and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha) along with the beta-actin (beta-Act) housekeeping gene. Expression of PIC was induced at 2 h p.i. in P. haemolytica-infected cattle and continued to 4 h p.i. At 2 h p.i., induction of gene expression and increase of cells that expressed PIC were observed both in CD18(+) and CD18(-) cattle after inoculation of P. haemolytica. The induction of gene expression with P. haemolytica inoculation was more prominent in CD18(-) cattle than in CD18(+) cattle by comparison to pyrogen-free saline (PFS)-inoculated control animals. At 4 h p.i., however, the induction of PIC, especially IL-1alpha, IL-6, and IFN-gamma, in the lungs of CD18(+) cattle inoculated with P. haemolytica was greater than that in lungs of the CD18(-) cattle. IFN-gamma and TNF-alpha genes were not increased in P. haemolytica-inoculated CD18(-) cattle lungs compared to the PFS-inoculated control lungs at 4 h p.i. In PFS-inoculated lungs, we generally observed a higher percentage of cells and higher level of gene expression in the lungs of CD18(-) cattle than in the lungs of CD18(+) cattle, especially at 4 h p.i. The rate of neutrophil infiltration into the lungs of CD18(-) cattle at 2 h p.i. was significantly higher than that of CD18(+) cattle; at 4 h p.i., there was no difference between the two groups. These data suggest that beta(2)-integrins may contribute to the induction of expression of some PIC genes, as a consequence of P. haemolytica infection.

Animals↗

PubMed1999

Anionic antimicrobial peptide-lysozyme interactions in innate pulmonary immunity.

The respiratory tract contains numerous antimicrobial factors necessary for normal innate pulmonary defense. Although many of these molecules reside in airway surface liquid (ASL) simultaneously, little information exists concerning antagonistic, additive, or synergistic interactions. Since both cationic lysozyme and anionic antimicrobial peptides (AP) are found in high concentrations in ASL, the purpose of this study was to assess any interaction that might affect antimicrobial activity. For this, Pasteurella haemolytica, Micrococcus lysodeikticus, or Pseudomonas aeruginosa were added to egg white lysozyme (3.9-250.0 microg/ml) or human neutrophil lysozyme (0.8-50.0 microg/ml) and H-GADDDDD-OH (from 0.01 to 0.50 mM) mixtures in 50, 100, or 150 mM NaCl; incubated for 2 h; and then plated. In this assay, the MICs of AP for P. haemolytica, M. lysodeikticus, and P. aeruginosa varied slightly depending upon the concentration of NaCl and MICs generally increased slightly with increasing NaCl concentrations. The MIC of lysozyme for P. haemolytica and M. lysodeikticus also increased slightly with increasing NaCl concentrations. The MIC of lysozyme for P. aeruginosa was greater than 50 microg/ml and did not vary with increasing NaCl concentrations. When AP was combined with lysozyme in 50, 100, or 150 mM NaCl concentrations, there was no significant interaction that affected antimicrobial activity. In conclusion, the MICs of AP generally increased with increasing NaCl concentrations but lysozyme and AP appeared not to interact significantly at physiologically relevant concentrations.

Amino Acid Sequence↗

PubMed1999

Induction of CD18-mediated passage of neutrophils by Pasteurella haemolytica in pulmonary bronchi and bronchioles.

Pasteurella haemolytica is an important respiratory pathogen of cattle that incites extensive infiltrates of neutrophils into the lung. In addition to the parenchymal damage caused by factors released by P. haemolytica, neutrophils contribute to the pathologic changes in the lungs. Molecules which mediate neutrophil infiltration into the lungs during P. haemolytica pneumonia are poorly characterized. To determine whether the CD18 family (beta2-integrin) of leukocyte adhesion molecules mediates initial passage of neutrophils into the pulmonary bronchi and bronchioles of lungs infected with P. haemolytica, three Holstein calves homozygous for bovine leukocyte adhesion deficiency (BLAD) (CD18-deficient neutrophils), and three age- and breed-matched control calves (normal CD18 expression) were inoculated with P. haemolytica A1 via a fiberoptic bronchoscope and euthanized at 2 h postinoculation. Sections of lung were stained for neutrophils, and the intensity of neutrophilic infiltration was determined by computerized image analysis. Significantly fewer (P < 0.05) neutrophils infiltrated the lumen, epithelium, and adventitia of bronchioles and bronchi in lungs of calves with BLAD compared to normal calves, which had dense infiltrates within these sites at 2 h postinoculation. The reduced infiltration in calves with BLAD occurred despite the presence of an extremely large number of neutrophils in peripheral blood that is typical for these calves. The large number of neutrophils in the blood of calves with BLAD is probably a physiologic response that can occur without microbial colonization, since one calf with BLAD that was raised under germ-free conditions had large numbers of neutrophils in the blood that were similar to those in a calf with BLAD that was raised conventionally. Neutrophil counts in the germ-free and conventionally reared calves with BLAD were much higher than those in the three normal calves raised under germ-free conditions. The work in this study demonstrates that during the initial inflammatory response, neutrophils with normal CD18 expression pass more readily than CD18-deficient neutrophils into the walls and lumen of bronchi and bronchioles. It suggests that CD18 is needed for initial passage through the extensive extracellular matrix of the bronchi and bronchioles. This has potential importance for the development of therapies to direct or inhibit neutrophil infiltration into conducting airways rather than alveolar spaces.

Animals↗

PubMed1999

Purification and properties of proline-rich antimicrobial peptides from sheep and goat leukocytes.

We purified three proline-rich antimicrobial peptides from elastase-treated extracts of sheep and goat leukocytes and subjected two of them, OaBac5alpha and ChBac5, to detailed analysis. OaBac5alpha and ChBac5 were homologous to each other and to bovine Bac5. Both exhibited potent, broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity under low-concentration salt conditions. While the peptides remained active against Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Bacillus subtilis, and Listeria monocytogenes in 100 mM NaCl, they lost activity against Staphylococcus aureus and Candida albicans under these conditions. ChBac5 was shown to bind lipopolysaccharide, a property that could enhance its ability to kill gram-negative bacteria. Proline-rich Bac5 peptides are highly conserved in ruminants and may contribute significantly to their innate host defense mechanisms.

Amino Acid Sequence↗