Biomedical subjects

L C Grothaus

Publications and source records attributed to L C Grothaus.

At least 19 recordsLinked to original sources

PubMed2001

Effect of improved glycemic control on health care costs and utilization.

CONTEXT: Because of the additional costs associated with improving diabetes management, there is interest in whether improved glycemic control leads to reductions in health care costs, and, if so, when such cost savings occur. OBJECTIVE: To determine whether sustained improvements in hemoglobin A(1c) (HbA(1c)) levels among diabetic patients are followed by reductions in health care utilization and costs. DESIGN AND SETTING: Historical cohort study conducted in 1992-1997 in a staff-model health maintenance organization (HMO) in western Washington State. PARTICIPANTS: All diabetic patients aged 18 years or older who were continuously enrolled between January 1992 and March 1996 and had HbA(1c) measured at least once per year in 1992-1994 (n = 4744). Patients whose HbA(1c) decreased 1% or more between 1992 and 1993 and sustained the decline through 1994 were considered to be improved (n = 732). All others were classified as unimproved (n = 4012). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Total health care costs, percentage hospitalized, and number of primary care and specialty visits among the improved vs unimproved cohorts in 1992-1997. RESULTS: Diabetic patients whose HbA(1c) measurements improved were similar demographically to those whose levels did not improve but had higher baseline HbA(1c) measurements (10.0% vs 7.7%; P<.001). Mean total health care costs were $685 to $950 less each year in the improved cohort for 1994 (P =.09), 1995 (P =.003), 1996 (P =.002), and 1997 (P =.01). Cost savings in the improved cohort were statistically significant only among those with the highest baseline HbA(1c) levels (>/=10%) for these years but appeared to be unaffected by presence of complications at baseline. Beginning in the year following improvement (1994), utilization was consistently lower in the improved cohort, reaching statistical significance for primary care visits in 1994 (P =.001), 1995 (P<.001), 1996 (P =.005), and 1997 (P =.004) and for specialty visits in 1997 (P =.02). Differences in hospitalization rates were not statistically significant in any year. CONCLUSION: Our data suggest that a sustained reduction in HbA(1c) level among adult diabetic patients is associated with significant cost savings within 1 to 2 years of improvement.

Adult↗

PubMed2001

Women's perceived and partners' reported support for smoking cessation during pregnancy.

Studies of the influence of social support on successful smoking cessation have been based on the smoker's perceptions only. In this pilot study of 58 couples, pregnant women who had smoked in the 30 days before pregnancy and their partners reported the positive and negative support for cessation they had received (women) or provided (partners). Mean levels of the women's and partners' perceptions of support were compared, and correlations of the two reports were analyzed while controlling for the effect of the couple's smoking status. Women's and partners' reports were similar except partners reported wanting the women to stop smoking more than women perceived. Women's and partners' perceived negative support were moderately correlated (r approximately equal to .48, p approximately equal to .001). Partner-reported positive support also was associated with women's perceived negative support (r approximately equal to .30, p approximately equal to .03). These relationships remained signif cant after controllingfor partners' and women's smoking status. Generally, partners reported giving more positive and less negative support than women perceived. Results suggest the need for further examination of couples' perceptions of support and the impact on smoking cessation during pregnancy.

Adult↗

PubMed2001

Chronic care clinics for diabetes in primary care: a system-wide randomized trial.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the impact of primary care group visits (chronic care clinics) on the process and outcome of care for diabetic patients. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: We evaluated the intervention in primary care practices randomized to intervention and control groups in a large-staff model health maintenance organization (HMO). Patients included diabetic patients > or = 30 years of age in each participating primary care practice, selected at random from an automated diabetes registry. Primary care practices were randomized within clinics to either a chronic care clinic (intervention) group or a usual care (control) group. The intervention group conducted periodic one-half day chronic care clinics for groups of approximately 8 diabetic patients in their respective doctor's practice. Chronic care clinics consisted of standardized assessments; visits with the primary care physician, nurse, and clinical pharmacist; and a group education/peer support meeting. We collected self-report questionnaires from patients and data from administrative systems. The questionnaires were mailed, and telephoned interviews were conducted for nonrespondents, at baseline and at 12 and 24 months; we queried the process of care received, the satisfaction with care, and the health status of each patient. Serum cholesterol and HbA1c levels and health care use and cost data was collected from HMO administrative systems. RESULTS: In an intention-to-treat analysis at 24 months, the intervention group had received significantly more recommended preventive procedures and helpful patient education. Of five primary health status indicators examined, two (SF-36 general health and bed disability days) were significantly better in the intervention group. Compared with control patients, intervention patients had slightly more primary care visits, but significantly fewer specialty and emergency room visits. Among intervention participants, we found consistently positive associations between the number of chronic care clinics attended and a number of outcomes, including patient satisfaction and HbA1c levels. CONCLUSIONS: Periodic primary care sessions organized to meet the complex needs of diabetic patients imrproved the process of diabetes care and were associated with better outcomes.

Adult↗

PubMed2001

Promoting smoking abstinence in pregnant and postpartum patients: a comparison of 2 approaches.

OBJECTIVE: To compare the implementation, delivery, and implications for dissemination of 2 different maternal smoking-cessation/relapse-prevention interventions in managed care environments. STUDY DESIGN: Healthy Options for Pregnancy and Parenting (HOPP) was a randomized, controlled efficacy trial of an intervention that bypassed the clinical setting. Stop Tobacco for OuR Kids (STORK) was a quasi-experimental effectiveness study of a point-of-service intervention. Both incorporated prenatal and postnatal components. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Subjects in both studies were pregnant women who either smoked currently or had quit recently. The major intervention in HOPP was telephone counseling delivered by trained counselors, whereas the STORK intervention was delivered by providers and staff during prepartum, inpatient postpartum, and well-baby visits. RESULTS: In HOPP, 97% of telephone intervention participants reported receiving 1 or more counselor calls. The intervention delayed but did not prevent postpartum relapse to smoking. Problems with intervention delivery related primarily to identification of the target population and acceptance of repeated calls. STORK delivered 1 or more cessation contacts to 91% of prenatal smokers in year 1, but the rate of intervention delivery declined in years 2 and 3. Modest differences were obtained in sustained abstinence between 6 and 12 months postpartum, but not in point prevalence abstinence at 12 months. CONCLUSIONS: The projects were compared using 4 of the 5 dimensions of the RE-AIM model including reach, adoption, implementation, and maintenance. It was difficult to apply the fifth dimension, efficacy, because of the differences in study design and purpose of the interventions. The strengths and limitations of each project were identified, and it was concluded that a combined intervention that incorporates elements of both HOPP and STORK would be optimal if it could be implemented at reasonable cost.

Adult↗

PubMed2000

Effectiveness of physician-based assessment and counseling for exercise in a staff model HMO.

BACKGROUND: Few primary care physicians routinely counsel for exercise, despite the benefits of physical activity and the high prevalence of inactivity. The objective of this study is to assess the effectiveness of Physician-Based Assessment and Counseling for Exercise (PACE), a brief, behavior-based tool for primary care providers counseling healthy adults. METHODS: This study is a randomized controlled trial of 812 patients age 30 years or older registered for well visits at 32 primary care physician offices at a staff model health maintenance organization. Intervention physicians were trained to deliver PACE exercise counseling protocols at the index visit, and one reminder telephone call occurred at 1 month. An enhanced intervention group received additional activity reminders. RESULTS: At the 6-month follow-up, the control group did not differ significantly from the intervention group for energy expended (2,048 kcal/week versus 2,108 kcal/ week, P = 0.77), time spent in walking or other moderate to vigorous activities (202 min/week versus 187 min/ week, P = 0.99), mental health, physical function, or behaviors previously shown to predict activity change. Among the intervention patients, the stages-of-change score for Contemplators increased significantly compared with controls (P = 0.03), but without a significant change in energy expended. Baseline levels of physical activity counseling were high (50%), as were baseline patient physical activity levels (61% exercised at least three times a week). CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that a one-time PACE counseling session with minimal reinforcement, in a setting with high baseline levels of activity, does not further increase activity. The finding that Contemplators advanced in stage of behavior change suggests that further studies are needed to examine long-term, repeated counseling interventions.

Adult↗

PubMed2000

Tobacco, alcohol, and caffeine use and cessation in early pregnancy.

OBJECTIVES: Little is known about what happens when individuals attempt to make multiple behavior changes simultaneously. Pregnant women in particular are often in the position of needing to change several behaviors at once, including giving up more than one pleasurable substance. We investigated the success of pregnant women in spontaneously quitting tobacco, alcohol, or caffeine, alone or in combination. METHODS: Pregnant women (n = 7489) were identified in the practices of large health maintenance organizations in Seattle and Minneapolis and were interviewed by telephone. Analyses examined the patterns of using and quitting more than one substance, and the extent to which using more than one substance predicts ability to quit other substances. RESULTS: Use of the three substances tended to cluster within individuals. Users of multiple substances were less likely to quit each substance than users of single substances. However, in the subgroup of multiple substance users who had quit one substance, having quit a second substance was more, rather than less, common. In multivariate analyses predicting quitting, demographic variables, and not having been pregnant previously were significant predictors of quitting each substance; being a nonsmoker predicted quitting alcohol, and being a nonsmoker and nondrinker predicted quitting caffeine. CONCLUSIONS: The reasons for difficulty in quitting more than one substance are unknown but may include the difficulty of formulating appropriate behavioral strategies or less concern about healthy behavior in pregnancy. Many women in the study successfully quit using two substances, however, and counseling should focus on achieving that outcome.

Adult↗

PubMed2000

Stress, depressive symptoms, and smoking cessation among pregnant women.

Perceived stress and depressive symptoms were examined as correlates and predictors of smoking cessation during pregnancy in a sample of 819 pregnant smokers (454 baseline smokers and 365 baseline quitters). Women who quit early in pregnancy had lower levels of stress and depressive symptoms than baseline smokers. Adjusting for level of addiction and other demographic factors related to stress and depressive symptoms eliminated the significant association between depressive symptoms and smoking cessation. Lower levels of stress and depressive symptoms were not predictive of cessation in later pregnancy. Prenatal healthcare providers should continue to assess level of addiction and provide targeted intensive cessation interventions. Interventions that reduce stress and depression may also be of benefit to women who are continuing smokers in early pregnancy.

Adult↗

PubMed2000

Predictors of participation in primary care group-format back pain self-care interventions.

OBJECTIVE: The goal of this study was to explain how primary care back pain patients who volunteer for a group-format self-care intervention differ from nonvolunteers. This is relevant to the generalizability of studies that rely on volunteers as well as the characteristics of patients who do not seek out self-care interventions. SETTING: This study was conducted at a large health maintenance organization in western Washington state. PATIENTS: "Volunteers" (n = 481) were primary care back pain patients participating in randomized trials of a self-management intervention who were recruited through passive nonintensive means (a mailed invitation). "Nonvolunteers" (n = 967) consisted of a representative sample of consecutive back pain patients. We compared the baseline characteristics of these two groups. RESULTS: The relatively small percentage (8%) of primary care back pain patients who volunteered for, and ultimately participated in, group self-management classes tended to be white, older, better educated, and more likely to be retired than nonvolunteers. The two groups did not differ significantly on most clinical measures, including pain intensity and persistence. Patients experiencing the highest (and lowest) levels of pain-related activity interference were less likely to volunteer than those with moderate activity limitations, however. CONCLUSIONS: Those individuals volunteering to participate in a group-format self-care intervention in a primary care setting differed from nonvolunteers primarily on demographic measures as opposed to clinical measures. Back pain patients experiencing the highest levels of activity limitations were somewhat less likely to participate than those with moderate activity limitations. Recruitment for effective self-care interventions is an important issue in determining their impact on a population basis.

Activities of Daily Living↗

PubMed1999

Evaluation of a minimal self-help smoking cessation intervention following cervical cancer screening.

OBJECTIVE: This study was undertaken to evaluate a smoking cessation intervention provided to women smokers as follow-up to cervical cancer screening. METHODS: Women who had had a Pap test in the prior month (N = 4,053) were called to complete a survey that assessed smoking status; 580 identified smokers were randomized to receive Usual care (n = 292) or a Self-help intervention (n = 288) that included a self-help booklet, a smoking and reproductive health information card, and three telephone counseling calls. Women were followed up at 6 and 15 months post-base line. RESULTS: Cessation rates in the Usual care (UC) and Self-help (SH) groups did not differ at the 6-month (UC 10.5% vs SH 10.9%, P = 0.56) or 15-month follow-up (UC 15.5% vs SH 10.6%, P = 0.17). Among women with an abnormal Pap test result there were no differences by study group in cessation rates at 6-month (UC 9.8% vs SH 11.0%, P = 0.71) or 15-month follow-up (UC 14.6% vs SH 13.4%, P = 0.96). CONCLUSION: Integrating interventions into the clinical setting and involving providers at the point of care may have greater potential for capitalizing on this "teachable moment."

Adolescent↗

PubMed1999

Chronic care clinics: a randomized controlled trial of a new model of primary care for frail older adults.

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether a new model of primary care, Chronic Care Clinics, can improve outcomes of common geriatric syndromes (urinary incontinence, falls, depressive symptoms, high risk medications, functional impairment) in frail older adults. DESIGN: Randomized controlled trial with 24 months of follow-up. Physician practices were randomized either to the Chronic Care Clinics intervention or to usual care. SETTING: Nine primary care physician practices that comprise an ambulatory clinic in a large staff-model HMO in western Washington State. PARTICIPANTS: Those patients aged 65 and older in each practice with the highest risk for being hospitalized or experiencing functional decline. INTERVENTION: Intervention practices (5 physicians, 96 patients) held half-day Chronic Care Clinics every 3 to 4 months. These clinics included an extended visit with the physician and nurse dedicated to planning chronic disease management; a pharmacist visit that emphasized reduction of polypharmacy and high-risk medications; and a patient self-management/support group. Control practices (4 physicians, 73 patients) received usual care. MEASUREMENTS: Changes in self-reported urinary incontinence, frequency of falls, depressive symptoms, physical function, and satisfaction were analyzed using an intention-to-treat analysis adjusted for baseline differences, covariates, and practice-level variation. Prescriptions for high-risk medications and cost/utilization data obtained from administrative data were similarly analyzed. RESULTS: After 24 months, no significant improvements in frequency of incontinence, proportion with falls, depression scores, physical function scores, or prescriptions for high risk medications were demonstrated. Costs of medical care including frequency of hospitalization, hospital days, emergency and ambulatory visits, and total costs of care were not significantly different between intervention and control groups. A higher proportion of intervention patients rated the overall quality of their medical care as excellent compared with control patients (40.0% vs 25.3%, P = .10). CONCLUSIONS: Although intervention patients expressed high levels of satisfaction with Chronic Care Clinics, improved outcomes for selected geriatric syndromes were not demonstrated. These findings suggest the need for developing greater system-wide support for managing geriatric syndromes in primary care and illustrate the challenges of conducting practice improvement research in a rapidly changing delivery system.

Aged↗

PubMed1999

Prevention of relapse in women who quit smoking during pregnancy.

OBJECTIVES: This study is an evaluation of relapse prevention interventions for smokers who quit during pregnancy. METHODS: Pregnant smokers at 2 managed care organizations were randomized to receive a self-help booklet only, prepartum relapse prevention, or prepartum and postpartum relapse prevention. Follow-up surveys were conducted at 28 weeks of pregnancy and at 8 weeks, 6 months, and 12 months postpartum. RESULTS: The pre/post intervention delayed but did not prevent postpartum relapse to smoking. Prevalent abstinence was significantly greater for the pre/post intervention group than for the other groups at 8 weeks (booklet group, 30%; prepartum group, 35%; pre/post group, 39%; P = .02 [different superscripts denote differences at P < .05]) and at 6 months (booklet group, 26%, prepartum group, 24%; pre/post group, 33%; P = .04) postpartum. A nonsignificant reduction in relapse among the pre/post group contributed to differences in prevalent abstinence. There was no difference between the groups in prevalent abstinence at 12 months postpartum. CONCLUSIONS: Relapse prevention interventions may need to be increased in duration and potency to prevent post-partum relapse.

Adult↗

PubMed1998

Use and cost effectiveness of smoking-cessation services under four insurance plans in a health maintenance organization.

BACKGROUND: Lack of information about the effect of insurance coverage on the demand for and use of smoking-cessation services has prevented widescale adoption of coverage for such services. METHODS: In a longitudinal, natural experiment, we compared the use and cost effectiveness of three forms of coverage with those of a standard form of coverage for smoking-cessation services that included a behavioral program and nicotine-replacement therapy. The study involved seven employers and a total of 90,005 adult enrollees. The standard plan offered 50 percent coverage of the behavioral program and full coverage of nicotine-replacement therapy. The other plans offered 50 percent coverage of both the behavioral program and nicotine-replacement therapy (reduced coverage), full coverage of the behavioral program and 50 percent coverage of nicotine-replacement therapy (flipped coverage), or full coverage of both the behavioral program and nicotine-replacement therapy. RESULTS: Estimated annual rates of use of smoking-cessation services ranged from 2.4 percent (among smokers with reduced coverage) to 10 percent (among those with full coverage). Smoking-cessation rates ranged from 28 percent (among users with full coverage) to 38 percent (among those with standard coverage). The estimated percentage of all smokers who would quit smoking per year as a result of using the services ranged from 0.7 percent (with reduced coverage) to 2.8 percent (with full coverage). The average cost to the health plan per user who quit smoking ranged from $797 (with standard coverage) to $1,171 (with full coverage). The annual cost per smoker ranged from $6 (with reduced coverage) to $33 (with full coverage). The annual cost per enrollee ranged from $0.89 (with reduced coverage) to $4.92 (with full coverage). CONCLUSIONS: Use of smoking-cessation services varies according to the extent of coverage, with the highest rates of use among smokers with full coverage. Although the rate of smoking cessation among the benefit users with full coverage was lower than the rates among users with plans requiring copayments, the effect on the overall prevalence of smoking was greater with full coverage than with the cost-sharing plans.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1998

Partner smoking status and pregnant smoker's perceptions of support for and likelihood of smoking cessation.

Perceptions of support for cessation of smoking during pregnancy, likelihood of quitting, and partner smoking status were explored in a sample of 688 pregnant smokers (372 baseline smokers and 316 baseline quitters). Women with nonsmoking partners were significantly more likely to be baseline quitters than women with partners who smoked. Baseline quitters reported significantly more positive support from their partners than did continuing smokers (p = .02). Neither partner smoking status nor partner support at baseline was associated with cessation or relapse later in pregnancy. Women reported greater support, both positive and negative, from nonsmoking partners than from partners who smoked (p = .001). Among partner smokers, those who were trying to quit were perceived to be particularly supportive. Cessation interventions for expectant fathers may increase pregnant women's success at quitting.

Adult↗

PubMed1998

Predicting hospitalization and functional decline in older health plan enrollees: are administrative data as accurate as self-report?

OBJECTIVE: To compare the predictive accuracy of two validated indices, one that uses self-reported variables and a second that uses variables derived from administrative data sources, to predict future hospitalization. To compare the predictive accuracy of these same two indices for predicting future functional decline. DESIGN: A longitudinal cohort study with 4 years of follow-up. SETTING: A large staff model HMO in western Washington State. PARTICIPANTS: HMO Enrollees 65 years and older (n = 2174) selected at random to participate in a health promotion trial and who completed a baseline questionnaire. MEASUREMENT: Predicted probabilities from the two indices were determined for study participants for each of two outcomes: hospitalization two or more times in 4 years and functional decline in 4 years, measured by Restricted Activity Days. The two indices included similar demographic characteristics, diagnoses, and utilization predictors. The probabilities from each index were entered into a Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) curve program to obtain the Area Under the Curve (AUC) for comparison of predictive accuracy. RESULTS: For hospitalization, the AUC of the self-report and administrative indices were .696 and .694, respectively (difference between curves, P = .828). For functional decline, the AUC of the two indices were .714 and .691, respectively (difference between curves, P = .144). CONCLUSIONS: Compared with a self-report index, the administrative index affords wider population coverage, freedom from nonresponse bias, lower cost, and similar predictive accuracy. A screening strategy utilizing administrative data sources may thus prove more valuable for identifying high risk older health plan enrollees for population-based interventions designed to improve their health status.

Activities of Daily Living↗

PubMed1998

Differences in preconceptional and prenatal behaviors in women with intended and unintended pregnancies.

OBJECTIVES: This study examined whether pregnancy intention was associated with cigarette smoking, alcohol drinking, use of vitamins, and consumption of caffeinated drinks prior to pregnancy and in early pregnancy. METHODS: Data from a telephone survey of 7174 pregnant women were analyzed. RESULTS: In comparison with women whose pregnancies were intended, women with unintended pregnancies were more likely to report cigarette smoking and less likely to report daily vitamin use. Women with unintended pregnancies were also less likely to decrease consumption of caffeinated beverages or increase daily vitamin use. CONCLUSIONS: Pregnancy intention was associated with health behaviors, prior to pregnancy and in early pregnancy, that may influence pregnancy course and birth outcomes.

Adult↗

PubMed1998

Use of health services by children of smokers and nonsmokers in a health maintenance organization.

OBJECTIVES: Use of health services by children of smokers and nonsmokers was compared to assess whether exposure to environmental tobacco smoke resulted in greater use of health services among children of smokers. METHODS: Primary care and emergency room visits, asthma-related prescriptions, and inpatient stays over the 42-month study period were compared for children of smokers (n = 498) and nonsmokers (n = 1062) who were enrolled in a health maintenance organization. Parents of children aged 1 through 11 years were identified from participants in 2 randomized smoking cessation trials. RESULTS: After adjustment for parental age, education, and health status and for child's age, there were no differences between children of smokers and children of nonsmokers in use of primary care or emergency room visits, asthma-related prescriptions, or inpatient stays. However, among those with any preventive care visits, children of smokers had significantly fewer visits than children of nonsmokers. CONCLUSIONS: Further study is needed to elucidate whether parents who smoke underutilize health services for their children or use services differently from nonsmoking parents and whether these differences have cost implications.

Ambulatory Care↗

PubMed1997

Functional status in coronary artery disease: a one-year prospective study of the role of anxiety and depression.

PURPOSE: Although coronary disease is the second most common cause of work and functional disability, little is known about the relative contributions of biomedical and psychosocial factors to this disability. This study was conducted to determine the associations of depression and anxiety with self-reported physical function and activity interference in patients with coronary artery disease. METHODS: This was a 1-year prospective cohort study of 198 HMO members who had elective cardiac catheterization for coronary artery disease in 1992. Measures included: severity of coronary artery stenosis from cardiac catheterization reports; anxiety and depression severity using interviewer-administered Hamilton Anxiety and Depression Rating Scales; and self-reported physical function and activity interference. RESULTS: At the time of catheterization, patients' self-reported physical function differed significantly by number of main coronary vessels stenosed >70% (P <0.03), by anxiety quartiles (P = 0.001), and by depression quartiles (P = 0.001). At 1 year, physical function was no longer associated with the number of main coronary vessels stenosed at baseline, but still was significantly associated with baseline anxiety (P <0.001) and depression quartiles (P = 0.01). Moreover, change in physical function scores from baseline to 12 months was associated with baseline anxiety (P <0.001) or depression (P <0.001) quartiles, but not with baseline number of occluded coronaries. Results for activity interference were similar to those for physical function. These associations were largely unchanged when corrected for age, sex, education, social class, medical versus surgical management of CAD, and degree of medical comorbidity. CONCLUSION: Anxiety and depression have a significant and persistent effect on physical function in patients with coronary artery disease. Although current treatment methods appear to neutralize the influence of coronary stenosis on physical function during the year following catheterization, this is not true for anxiety and depression.

Age Factors↗

PubMed1996

Does walking decrease the risk of cardiovascular disease hospitalizations and death in older adults?

OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this study was to determine whether walking is associated with a reduced risk of cardiovascular disease hospitalization and death in community-dwelling older men and women. DESIGN: A prospective study, with follow-up time of 4 to 5 years (average 4.2 years). SETTING: A western Washington health maintenance organization. PARTICIPANTS: Men and women aged 65 years and older from a random sample of HMO enrollees invited by mail to participate in a health promotion intervention trial (36% accepted the invitation and completed questionnaires). This report is based on 1645 older adults without severe disability and without history of heart disease. Vital status ascertainment was complete (100%), and only 2.6% did not complete the follow-up. MEASUREMENTS: Reported frequency and duration of walking for exercise, work, errands, pleasure, and hiking in the 2 weeks before baseline were used to classify hours of walking per week. The two main outcomes were: (1) cardiovascular disease hospitalizations with a discharge diagnosis of coronary (ICD-9-CM 410-414) or other cardiovascular diseases (ICD-9-CM 390-409, 415-448) documented by computerized hospitalization records and (2) death. Numerous potential confounding factors were considered, including age, sex, treated high blood pressure, current estrogen use and chronic disease score (ascertained by computerized medical and pharmacy records), and ethnicity, education, income, physical function, self-rated health status, smoking, alcohol intake, and body mass index (ascertained by self-report on the mailed questionnaire). RESULTS: Walking more than 4 hours/week was associated significantly with a reduced risk of cardiovascular disease hospitalization in both sexes combined compared with walking less than 1 hour/week (age and sex-adjusted relative risk = 0.69; 95% confidence interval, 0.52-0.90). This association was not altered by adjustment for baseline cardiovascular risk factors and indicators of general health status. The association was present in all age groups, among those with and without physical limitations, and also among those who did and did not also participate in more vigorous physical activities. Walking more than 4 hours/week was also associated with a reduced risk of death (age and sex-adjusted relative risk = 0.73; 95% confidence interval, 0.48-1.10), however, this association was substantially diminished by adjustment for cardiovascular risk factors and measures of general health status. CONCLUSIONS: Walking more than 4 hours/week may reduce the risk of hospitalization for cardiovascular disease events. The association of walking more than 4 hours/week with reduced risk of death may be mediated by effects of walking on other risk factors. These findings provide much stronger evidence than previously available for advising older men and women to embark on or maintain a sustained program of walking to prevent cardiovascular disease events.

Activities of Daily Living↗