Biomedical subjects

Lars Paulin

Publications and source records attributed to Lars Paulin.

At least 19 recordsLinked to original sources

PubMed2006

Comparison of media for enumeration of coliform bacteria and Escherichia coli in non-disinfected water.

In this work alternative media for detection and enumeration of E. coli and coliform bacteria were compared to the reference method ISO 9308-1 (LTTC) using non-disinfected water samples with background flora. The alternative media included LES Endo agar medium (LES Endo), Colilert-18 with 51-well Quanti-tray (Colilert), Chromocult Coliform agar (CC), Harlequin E. coli/Coliform medium (HECM) and Chromogenic Escherichia coli/Coliform medium (CECM). A total of 110 samples of groundwater, bathing water and spiked water was used. Our results revealed that confirmation of coliform bacteria counts is necessary, not only on lactose-based LTTC and LES Endo media, but also on the chromogenic agar media tested, due to the growth of oxidase positive colonies. LTTC and CC media also allowed the growth of some morphologically typical coliform colonies containing gram-positive bacteria. The recovery of coliform bacteria was lower on LES Endo than on LTTC. In most cases Colilert, CC, HECM and CECM gave higher coliform counts than LTTC. The use of the LTTC medium led to higher E. coli counts than obtained with any of the alternative mediums. There are three explanations for this: (1) high sensitivity of LTTC, (2) false positives on LTTC or (3) false negatives especially with Colilert, but also with chromogenic agar media. Although LTTC was found to be a very sensitive medium, the high degree of background growth of non-disinfected waters disturbed substantially the use of it. In conclusion, our results suggest that Colilert, CC and CECM are potential alternative media for detection of coliform bacteria and E. coli from non-disinfected water.

Bacteriological Techniques↗

PubMed2006

Role of broiler carcasses and processing plant air in contamination of modified-atmosphere-packaged broiler products with psychrotrophic lactic acid bacteria.

Some psychrotrophic lactic acid bacteria (LAB) are specific meat spoilage organisms in modified-atmosphere-packaged (MAP), cold-stored meat products. To determine if incoming broilers or the production plant environment is a source of spoilage LAB, a total of 86, 122, and 447 LAB isolates from broiler carcasses, production plant air, and MAP broiler products, respectively, were characterized using a library of HindIII restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) patterns of the 16 and 23S rRNA genes as operational taxonomic units in numerical analyses. Six hundred thirteen LAB isolates from the total of 655 clustered in 29 groups considered to be species specific. Sixty-four percent of product isolates clustered either with Carnobacterium divergens or with Carnobacterium maltaromaticum type strains. The third major product-associated cluster (17% of isolates) was formed by unknown LAB. Representative strains from these three clusters were analyzed for the phylogeny of their 16S rRNA genes. This analysis verified that the two largest RFLP clusters consisted of carnobacteria and showed that the unknown LAB group consisted of Lactococcus spp. No product-associated LAB were detected in broiler carcasses sampled at the beginning of slaughter, whereas carnobacteria and lactococci, along with some other specific meat spoilage LAB, were recovered from processing plant air at many sites. This study reveals that incoming broiler chickens are not major sources of psychrotrophic spoilage LAB, whereas the detection of these organisms from the air of the processing environment highlights the role of processing facilities as sources of LAB contamination.

Atmosphere↗

PubMed2006

Longitudinal study of Finnish Campylobacter jejuni and C. coli isolates from humans, using multilocus sequence typing, including comparison with epidemiological data and isolates from poultry and cattle.

We describe a study on the application of multilocus sequence typing for the analysis of Campylobacter jejuni and C. coli isolates from human domestically acquired infections in the Helsinki-Uusimaa area of Finland in 1996, 2002, and 2003. In addition, isolates from poultry meat and fecal samples of cattle from the seasonal peak (July to September) in 2003 were included in the study. In total, 361 Finnish C. jejuni and C. coli strains were typed. Sequence type 45 (ST-45) (45%), ST-21 (21%), and ST-677 (11%) clonal complexes were the most prevalent. The ST-45 and ST-677 complexes were overrepresented in comparison with previous studies. The longitudinal study revealed an association between C. coli (ST-828 complex) infection and elderly patients (>/=60 years). Analysis of exposure factors, determined by a previous case-control study conducted during the seasonal peak in 2002, revealed that the ST-48 complex was significantly (P < 0.05) associated with the tasting or eating of raw minced meat. New and unassigned STs were associated with swimming in natural bodies of water, whereas the ST-677 complex was related to drinking nonchlorinated water from a small water plant or water from natural sources. The ST-45 complex was associated with contact with pet cats and dogs. In 2003, ST-45 occurrence was significantly associated with poultry whereas ST-50 was associated with isolates from humans. In contrast, ST-53, ST-58, ST-61, and ST-883 were significantly associated with isolates from cattle. Further studies are needed to reveal the significance of the observed associations.

Animals↗

PubMed2006

Mycobacteria and fungi in moisture-damaged building materials.

In contrast to the growth of fungi, the growth of mycobacteria in moisture-damaged building materials has rarely been studied. Environmental mycobacteria were isolated from 23% of samples of moisture-damaged materials (n = 88). The occurrence of mycobacteria increased with increasing concentrations of fungi. Mycobacteria may contribute to indoor exposure and associated adverse health effects.

Construction Materials↗

PubMed2005

Gene expression and metabolite profiling of Populus euphratica growing in the Negev desert.

BACKGROUND: Plants growing in their natural habitat represent a valuable resource for elucidating mechanisms of acclimation to environmental constraints. Populus euphratica is a salt-tolerant tree species growing in saline semi-arid areas. To identify genes involved in abiotic stress responses under natural conditions we constructed several normalized and subtracted cDNA libraries from control, stress-exposed and desert-grown P. euphratica trees. In addition, we identified several metabolites in desert-grown P. euphratica trees. RESULTS: About 14,000 expressed sequence tag (EST) sequences were obtained with a good representation of genes putatively involved in resistance and tolerance to salt and other abiotic stresses. A P. euphratica DNA microarray with a uni-gene set of ESTs representing approximately 6,340 different genes was constructed. The microarray was used to study gene expression in adult P. euphratica trees growing in the desert canyon of Ein Avdat in Israel. In parallel, 22 selected metabolites were profiled in the same trees. CONCLUSION: Of the obtained ESTs, 98% were found in the sequenced P. trichocarpa genome and 74% in other Populus EST collections. This implies that the P. euphratica genome does not contain different genes per se, but that regulation of gene expression might be different and that P. euphratica expresses a different set of genes that contribute to adaptation to saline growth conditions. Also, all of the five measured amino acids show increased levels in trees growing in the more saline soil.

Desert Climate↗

PubMed2005

A snapshot of viral evolution from genome analysis of the tectiviridae family.

The origin, evolution and relationships of viruses are all fascinating topics. Current thinking in these areas is strongly influenced by the tailed double-stranded (ds) DNA bacteriophages. These viruses have mosaic genomes produced by genetic exchange and so new natural isolates are quite dissimilar to each other, and to laboratory strains. Consequently, they are not amenable to study by current tools for phylogenetic analysis. Less attention has been paid to the Tectiviridae family, which embraces icosahedral dsDNA bacterial viruses with an internal lipid membrane. It includes viruses, such as PRD1, that infect Gram-negative bacteria, as well as viruses like Bam35 with Gram-positive hosts. Although PRD1 and Bam35 have closely related virion morphology and genome organization, they have no detectable sequence similarity. There is strong evidence that the Bam35 coat protein has the "double-barrel trimer" arrangement of PRD1 that was first observed in adenovirus and is predicted to occur in other viruses with large facets. It is very likely that a single ancestral virus gave rise to this very large group of viruses. The unprecedented degree of conservation recently observed for two Bam35-like tectiviruses made it important to investigate those infecting Gram-negative bacteria. The DNA sequences for six PRD1-like isolates (PRD1, PR3, PR4, PR5, L17, PR772) have now been determined. Remarkably, these bacteriophages, isolated at distinctly different dates and global locations, have almost identical genomes. The discovery of almost invariant genomes for the two main Tectiviridae groups contrasts sharply with the situation in the tailed dsDNA bacteriophages. Notably, it permits a sequence analysis of the isolates revealing that the tectiviral proteins can be dissected into a slowly evolving group descended from the ancestor, the viral self, and a more rapidly changing group reflecting interactions with the host.

Amino Acid Sequence↗

PubMed2005

Analysis of the floral transcriptome uncovers new regulators of organ determination and gene families related to flower organ differentiation in Gerbera hybrida (Asteraceae).

Development of composite inflorescences in the plant family Asteraceae has features that cannot be studied in the traditional model plants for flower development. In Gerbera hybrida, inflorescences are composed of morphologically different types of flowers tightly packed into a flower head (capitulum). Individual floral organs such as pappus bristles (sepals) are developmentally specialized, stamens are aborted in marginal flowers, petals and anthers are fused structures, and ovaries are located inferior to other floral organs. These specific features have made gerbera a rewarding target of comparative studies. Here we report the analysis of a gerbera EST database containing 16,994 cDNA sequences. Comparison of the sequences with all plant peptide sequences revealed 1656 unique sequences for gerbera not identified elsewhere within the plant kingdom. Based on the EST database, we constructed a cDNA microarray containing 9000 probes and have utilized it in identification of flower-specific genes and abundantly expressed marker genes for flower scape, pappus, stamen, and petal development. Our analysis revealed several regulatory genes with putative functions in flower-organ development. We were also able to associate a number of abundantly and specifically expressed genes with flower-organ differentiation. Gerbera is an outcrossing species, for which genetic approaches to gene discovery are not readily amenable. However, reverse genetics with the help of gene transfer has been very informative. We demonstrate here the usability of the gerbera microarray as a reliable new tool for identifying novel genes related to specific biological questions and for large-scale gene expression analysis.

Asteraceae↗

PubMed2005

Two phylogenetically highly distinct beta-tubulin genes of the basidiomycete Suillus bovinus.

Genes tubb1 and tubb2 which encode beta-tubulins 1 and 2, respectively, were characterised from the ectomycorrhizal basidiomycete Suillus bovinus. The two beta-tubulins are surprisingly divergent, with the lowest known sequence identity (60%) in any single fungal species. Comparative analysis showed that beta-tubulin 1 and the intron distribution within the tubb1 gene resemble the other beta-tubulins. beta-Tubulin 2, in contrast, is the most divergent fully described fungal beta-tubulin and the gene contains at least 21 introns, which is the largest amount known for any beta-tubulin gene. Despite this divergence, both genes are constitutively expressed in the functional compartments of the mycorrhizosphere and in pure cultures. Transcription of tubb1 is about 2.4 times higher than that of tubb2; and this difference is also seen at the translation level. Evidence suggested that phosphorylation may be the main post-translational modification of both beta-tubulins. The putative GTP-binding site residues of beta-tubulin 1 match crystallised pig beta-tubulin residues, while five of the nine differences in beta-tubulin 2 match the pig alpha-tubulin GTP-site, suggesting the presence of adaptive sequence evolution. In a Bayesian analysis, beta-tubulin 1 joins the other basidiomycete sequences, while beta-tubulin 2 loosely associates with the group of divergent ascomycete sequences without any clear relative among the known full-length fungal beta-tubulin sequences.

Amino Acid Sequence↗

PubMed2005

GABA receptor rho subunit expression in the developing rat brain.

Ionotropic GABA(C) receptors are composed of rho1, rho2 and rho3 subunits. Although the distribution of rho subunit mRNAs in the adult brain has been studied, information on the developmental regulation of different rho subunits in the brain is scattered and incomplete. Here, GABA(C) receptor rho subunit expression was studied in the developing rat brain. In situ hybridization on postnatal brain slices showed rho2 mRNA expression from newborn in superficial gray layer (SGL) of superior colliculus (SuC), and from the first postnatal week in the hippocampal CA1 region and pretectal nucleus of the optic tract. rho2 mRNA was also expressed in the adult dorsal lateral geniculate nucleus. Quantitative RT-PCR revealed expression of all three rho subunits in the hippocampus and superior colliculus from the first postnatal day. In the hippocampus, rho2 mRNA expression clearly dominated over rho1 and rho3, whereas in the superior colliculus, rho1 mRNA expression levels were similar to rho2. In both areas, a clear up-modulation of rho2 and rho3 mRNA during the first postnatal week was detected. GABA(C) receptor protein expression was confirmed in adult hippocampus, superior colliculus and dorsal lateral geniculate nucleus by immunohistochemistry. Our results demonstrate for the first time the expression of all three rho subunit mRNAs in several regions of the developing and adult rat brain. Our quantitative data allows assessment of putative subunit combinations in the superior colliculus and hippocampus. From the selective distribution of rho subunits, it may be hypothesized that GABA(C) receptors are specifically involved in aspects of visual image motion processing in the rat brain.

Animals↗

PubMed2005

Paucibacter toxinivorans gen. nov., sp. nov., a bacterium that degrades cyclic cyanobacterial hepatotoxins microcystins and nodularin.

Thirteen bacterial isolates from lake sediment, capable of degrading cyanobacterial hepatotoxins microcystins and nodularin, were characterized by phenotypic, genetic and genomic approaches. Cells of these isolates were Gram-negative, motile by means of a single polar flagellum, oxidase-positive, weakly catalase-positive and rod-shaped. According to phenotypic characteristics (carbon utilization, fatty acid and enzyme activity profiles), the G+C content of the genomic DNA (66.1-68.0 mol%) and 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis (98.9-100% similarity) the strains formed a single microdiverse genospecies that was most closely related to Roseateles depolymerans (95.7-96.3% 16S rRNA gene sequence similarity). The isolates assimilated only a few carbon sources. Of the 96 carbon sources tested, Tween 40 was the only one used by all strains. The strains were able to mineralize phosphorus from organic compounds, and they had strong leucine arylamidase and chymotrypsin activities. The cellular fatty acids identified from all strains were C(16:0) (9.8-19%) and C(17:1)omega7c (<1-5.8%). The other predominant fatty acids comprised three groups: summed feature 3 (<1-2.2%), which included C(14:0) 3-OH and C(16:1) iso I, summed feature 4 (54-62%), which included C(16:1)omega7c and C(15:0) iso OH, and summed feature 7 (8.5-28%), which included omega7c, omega9c and omega12t forms of C(18:1). A more detailed analysis of two strains indicated that C(16:1)omega7c was the main fatty acid. The phylogenetic and phenotypic features separating our strains from recognized bacteria support the creation of a novel genus and species, for which the name Paucibacter toxinivorans gen. nov., sp. nov. is proposed. The type strain is 2C20(T) (=DSM 16998(T)=HAMBI 2767(T)=VYH 193597(T)).

Bacterial Toxins↗

PubMed2004

Probing the alpha-complementing domain of E. coli beta-galactosidase with use of an insertional pentapeptide mutagenesis strategy based on Mu in vitro DNA transposition.

Protein structure-function relationships can be studied by using linker insertion mutagenesis, which efficiently identifies essential regions in target proteins. Bacteriophage Mu in vitro DNA transposition was used to generate an extensive library of pentapeptide insertion mutants within the alpha-complementing domain 1 of Escherichia coli beta-galactosidase, yielding mutants at 100% efficiency. Each mutant contained an accurate 15-bp insertion that translated to five additional amino acids within the protein, and the insertions were distributed essentially randomly along the target sequence. Individual mutants (alpha-donors) were analyzed for their ability to restore (by alpha-complementation) beta-galactosidase activity of the M15 deletion mutant (alpha-acceptor), and the data were correlated to the structure of the beta-galactosidase tetramer. Most of the insertions were well tolerated, including many of those disrupting secondary structural elements even within the protein's interior. Nevertheless, certain sites were sensitive to mutations, indicating both known and previously unknown regions of functional importance. Inhibitory insertions within the N-terminus and loop regions most likely influenced protein tetramerization via direct local effects on protein-protein interactions. Within the domain 1 core, the insertions probably caused either lateral shifting of the polypeptide chain toward the protein's exterior or produced more pronounced structural distortions. Six percent of the mutant proteins exhibited temperature sensitivity, in general suggesting the method's usefulness for generation of conditional phenotypes. The method should be applicable to any cloned protein-encoding gene.

Amino Acid Sequence↗

PubMed2004

Expression patterns and phylogenetic analysis of two xylanase genes (htxyl1 and htxyl2) from Helminthosporium turcicum, the cause of northern leaf blight of maize.

A xylanase gene (htxyl2) was cloned from Helminthosporium turcicum, the cause of northern leaf blight of maize by screening the genomic library from the fungus using a approximately 500 bp PCR fragment of the gene as a probe. The gene is a second xylanase gene cloned from the fungus and it is different from the previously cloned xylanase gene (htxyl1). The two genes are grouped into separate clades in a phylogenetic tree based on DNA sequences. The patterns of htxyl1 and htxyl2 transcript accumulation were studied in vitro with different carbon and nitrogen sources and during infection of maize by the pathogen. In culture high htxyl1 transcript was detected in mycelium obtained from medium containing birchwood xylan and birchwood xylan plus xylose as sole carbon sources. On the other hand htxyl2 transcript was detected in a medium containing birchwood xylan plus xylose but not in the medium where only birchwood xylan was used as the sole carbon source. Addition of glucose to the basal inducing media had inhibitory effect to the expression of both genes. The htxyl1 transcript accumulation declined sharply with an increase in concentration of ammonium sulphate and glutamic acid, while increased htxyl2 transcript was observed with an increase in concentrations of the two nitrogen sources. Abundant htxyl2 transcript was detected at early and late stages of infection of maize by Helminthosporium turcicum. On the other hand no detectable htxyl1 transcript was found in northern blot under the test conditions. This study demonstrated that in H. turcicum xylanolytic system htxyl1 and htxyl2 are differentially expressed and might play important roles in the saprophytic and pathogenic phases of the fungus, respectively.

Amino Acid Sequence↗

PubMed2004

Mycobacteria in water and loose deposits of drinking water distribution systems in Finland.

Drinking water distribution systems were analyzed for viable counts of mycobacteria by sampling water from waterworks and in different parts of the systems. In addition, loose deposits collected during mechanical cleaning of the main pipelines were similarly analyzed. The study covered 16 systems at eight localities in Finland. In an experimental study, mycobacterial colonization of biofilms on polyvinyl chloride tubes in a system was studied. The isolation frequency of mycobacteria increased from 35% at the waterworks to 80% in the system, and the number of mycobacteria in the positive samples increased from 15 to 140 CFU/liter, respectively. Mycobacteria were isolated from all 11 deposits with an accumulation time of tens of years and from all 4 deposits which had accumulated during a 1-year follow-up time. The numbers of mycobacteria were high in both old and young deposits (medians, 1.8 x 10(5) and 3.9 x 10(5) CFU/g [dry weight], respectively). Both water and deposit samples yielded the highest numbers of mycobacteria in the systems using surface water and applying ozonation as an intermediate treatment or posttreatment. The number and growth of mycobacteria in system waters correlated strongly with the concentration of assimilable organic carbon in the water leaving the waterworks. The densities of mycobacteria in the developing biofilms were highest at the distal sites of the systems. Over 90% of the mycobacteria isolated from water and deposits belonged to Mycobacterium lentiflavum, M. tusciae, M. gordonae, and a previously unclassified group of mycobacteria. Our results indicate that drinking water systems may be a source for recently discovered new mycobacterial species.

Biofilms↗

PubMed2003

A new type of cysteine proteinase inhibitor--the salarin gene from Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) and Arctic charr (Salvelinus alpinus).

Salarin is a 43 kDa glycoprotein which is found so far only in salmonid fish species. It is a strong inhibitor of cysteine proteinases. Here we characterised the salarin gene from Atlantic salmon and cDNA from Arctic charr. The salarin gene has 13 exons and 1026 bp long coding sequence. The translated amino acid sequence has four similar domains. The sequence resembles the proregion of cathepsins, known to inhibit cysteine proteinases. Salarin can be a new type of cysteine proteinase inhibitor.

Amino Acid Sequence↗

PubMed2003

ITS probe development for specific detection of Rhizoctonia spp. and Suillus bovinus based on Southern blot and liquid hybridization-fragment length polymorphism.

Development of specific DNA probes targeting rDNA internal transcribed spacer (ITS-1 or -2) sequences is described for the detection of strains representing uninucleate and binucleate Rhizoctonia spp. and Suillus bovinus. Discriminatory taxon/species-specific target sequences were identified following full length ITS sequence alignment of the test fungal sequences and those of other root associated pathogenic or mycorrhizal fungi. Both long (124-151 bp) and shorter (20-25 bp) probes were generated for assessment in Southern dot blot and liquid hybridization ITS capture-fragment length polymorphism assays. Fungal genomic DNA was presented as the target in dot blot protocols using the longer DIG (digoxigenin) labelled probes whilst the shorter 3' biotin-labelled oligonucleotide probes were hybridized to PCR amplified full length ITS (ITS1-5.8S-ITS2) in both dot blot and liquid hybridization assays. The optimal hybridization temperatures for dot blot detection also produced maximal target specific signals in the liquid hybridization protocol. The latter protocol was found to be more discriminatory as target fungi were detected on the basis of combined probe hybridization-ITS capture and 5' Cy-5 labelled ITS length polymorphism analysis (+/- 5 bp) following denaturing sequencing gel electrophoresis in a ALFexpress DNA sequencer.

Base Sequence↗

PubMed2003

Discordant phylogenies within the rrn loci of Rhizobia.

It is evident from complete genome sequencing results that lateral gene transfer and recombination are essential components in the evolutionary process of bacterial genomes. Since this has important implications for bacterial systematics, the primary objective of this study was to compare estimated evolutionary relationships among a representative set of alpha-Proteobacteria by sequencing analysis of three loci within their rrn operons. Tree topologies generated with 16S rRNA gene sequences were significantly different from corresponding trees assembled with 23S rRNA gene and internally transcribed space region sequences. Besides the incongruence in tree topologies, evidence that distinct segments along the 16S rRNA gene sequences of bacteria currently classified within the genera Bradyrhizobium, Mesorhizobium and Sinorhizobium have a reticulate evolutionary history was also obtained. Our data have important implications for bacterial taxonomy, because currently most taxonomic decisions are based on comparative 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis. Since phylogenetic placement based on 16S rRNA gene sequence divergence perhaps is questionable, we suggest that the proposals of bacterial nomenclature or changes in their taxonomy that have been made may not necessarily be warranted. Accordingly, a more conservative approach should be taken in the future, in which taxonomic decisions are based on the analysis of a wider variety of loci and comparative analytical methods are used to estimate phylogenetic relationships among the genomes under consideration.

Base Sequence↗

PubMed2003

A direct transposon insertion tool for modification and functional analysis of viral genomes.

Advances in DNA transposition technology have recently generated efficient tools for various types of functional genetic analyses. We demonstrate here the power of the bacteriophage Mu-derived in vitro DNA transposition system for modification and functional characterization of a complete bacterial virus genome. The linear double-stranded DNA genome of Escherichia coli bacteriophage PRD1 was studied by insertion mutagenesis with reporter mini-Mu transposons that were integrated in vitro into isolated genomic DNA. After introduction into bacterial cells by electroporation, recombinant transposon-containing virus clones were identified by autoradiography or visual blue-white screening employing alpha-complementation of E. coli beta-galactosidase. Additionally, a modified transposon with engineered NotI sites at both ends was used to introduce novel restriction sites into the phage genome. Analysis of the transposon integration sites in the genomes of viable recombinant phage generated a functional map, collectively indicating genes and genomic regions essential and nonessential for virus propagation. Moreover, promoterless transposons defined the direction of transcription within several insert-tolerant genomic regions. These strategies for the analysis of viral genomes are of a general nature and therefore may be applied to functional genomics studies in all prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell viruses.

Amino Acid Sequence↗

PubMed2003

Polymorphism of the rod visual pigment between allopatric populations of the sand goby (Pomatoschistus minutus): a microspectrophotometric study.

Absorbance spectra were measured by microspectrophotometry in retinal rods of sand gobies (Pomatoschistus minutus) from four allopatric populations (Baltic Sea, Swedish west coast, English Channel and Adriatic Sea). Mean (+/- S.E.M.) wavelengths of maximum absorbance (lambda(max)) were 508.3+/-0.5 nm, 505.4+/-0.2 nm, 506.2+/-0.3 nm and 503.0+/-0.3 nm, respectively. Pairwise comparison between the populations (post-ANOVA Scheffe's test) shows that each of the lambda(max) differences, except that between the Swedish west coast and the English Channel, is statistically significant (P<0.05). The shapes of the absorbance spectra indicated that the pigments were A1 rhodopsins with no measurable admixture of the A2 chromophore. Thus, the differences indicate polymorphism in the protein part (opsin) of the pigment. Convolution of A1 templates for lambda(max) values 508.3 nm and 503.0 nm with quantum spectra of the downwelling light at two locations at the south-west coast of Finland indicated that a 13-19% improvement in quantum catch would accrue in the Baltic environment from the 5.3 nm red-shift of the rod pigment of Baltic compared with Adriatic sand gobies.

Animals↗