Biomedical subjects
Publications and source records attributed to M Daffé.
We isolated a rough variant of Mycobacterium abscessus CIP 104536T during experimental infection of mice. We show that this variant has lost the ability to produce glycopeptidolipids, is hyperlethal for C57BL/6 mice infected intravenously, and induces a strong tumor necrosis factor-alpha response by murine monocyte-derived macrophages.
To gain further insights into the understanding of the intein invasion process in mycobacteria, intein sequences in the gyrA gene of 42 mycobacterial strains were searched and a new gyrA intein was found in Mycobacterium gastri (Mga). This 1260 bp intein, named MgaGyrA, inserted at the GyrA-a site, is highly homologous to the members of the Mycobacterium leprae GyrA allelic family. As the recA intein, MgaGyrA was detected in only one out of six Mga strains examined, while the pps1 intein was a constant character of Mga. This data supports the genomic heterogeneity of Mga towards intein invasion, a finding that may have phylogenetic implications.
A survey of a vast range of mycobacterial strains led us to discover a new Pps1 intein allele in Mycobacterium gastri which differs from those of Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Mycobacterium leprae in both its sequence and insertion site. While little is known about Pps1, except that it belongs to the YC24 family of ABC transporters, we show that, unlike the other inteins described so far from Eubacteria, the MgaPps1 intein possesses a specific endonuclease activity. The intein is the first eubacterial intein to be characterised as an endonuclease. Like other intein endonucleases, its minimal sequence for recognition and cleavage is quite large, with 22 bp spanning the Pps1-c site. The fact that an active endonuclease is found among the mycobacterial inteins supports the concept of a cyclical model of invasion by horizontal transfer of these genes, followed by degeneration and loss until a new invasion event, thus explaining their long-term persistence in closely related eubacterial species.
Mycolic acids, major and specific long-chain fatty (C70-C90) acid components of the mycobacterial cell envelope, were analyzed for the first time using matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight (MALDI-TOF) mass spectrometry operating in a reflectron mode. The various types of purified mycolates from representative mycobacterial species were analyzed using 2,5-DHB as matrix, because less than 10 pmol of mycolates was sufficient to obtain well-resolved mass spectra composed exclusively of pseudomolecular [M + Na]+ ions consistent with the structures deduced from the chemical analytical techniques applied to these molecules. Examination of the MALDI mass spectra demonstrated that the chain lengths of the various mycolates correlated with the growth rate of mycobacterial strains. Although slow growers, such as Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Mycobacterium ulcerans, produced a series of odd carbon numbers (C74-C82) of alpha-mycolic acids, rapid growers synthesized both odd and even carbon numbers. In addition, the main chain of oxygenated mycolic acids from slow growers were four to six carbon atoms longer than the corresponding alpha-mycolic acids, whereas rapid growers elaborated oxygenated homologues possessing the same chain lengths as their alpha-mycolic acids. Furthermore, a comparative analysis of the crude fatty acid mixtures from a wild-type strain of M. tuberculosis and its isogenic mutant effected in the synthesis of oxygenated mycolates by MALDI mass spectrometry revealed structural differences between the alpha-mycolates from the two strains. Thus, this technique appeared to be a rapid and highly sensitive technique for the analysis of mycolic acids, not only by providing accurate molecular masses and new structural information, but also by both reducing sample consumption and saving time.
Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the causative agent of tuberculosis, produces a heparin-binding haemagglutinin adhesin (HBHA), which is involved in its epithelial adherence. To ascertain whether HBHA is also present in fast-growing mycobacteria, Mycobacterium smegmatis was studied using anti-HBHA monoclonal antibodies (mAbs). A cross-reactive protein was detected by immunoblotting of M. smegmatis whole-cell lysates. However, the M. tuberculosis HBHA-encoding gene failed to hybridize with M. smegmatis chromosomal DNA in Southern blot analyses. The M. smegmatis protein recognized by the anti-HBHA mAbs was purified by heparin-Sepharose chromatography, and its amino-terminal sequence was found to be identical to that of the previously described histone-like protein, indicating that M. smegmatis does not produce HBHA. Biochemical analysis of the M. smegmatis histone-like protein shows that it is glycosylated like HBHA. Immunoelectron microscopy demonstrated that the M. smegmatis protein is present on the mycobacterial surface, a cellular localization inconsistent with a histone-like function, but compatible with an adhesin activity. In vitro protein interaction assays showed that this glycoprotein binds to laminin, a major component of basement membranes. Therefore, the protein was called M. smegmatis laminin-binding protein (MS-LBP). MS-LBP does not appear to be involved in adherence in the absence of laminin but is responsible for the laminin-mediated mycobacterial adherence to human pneumocytes and macrophages. Homologous laminin-binding adhesins are also produced by virulent mycobacteria such as M. tuberculosis and Mycobacterium leprae, suggesting that this adherence mechanism may contribute to the pathogenesis of mycobacterial diseases.
The subcomponents of bacille Calmette-Guérin (BCG) involved in the mechanism of action of intravesical BCG immunotherapy used for prophylaxis of superficial bladder cancer recurrences have been poorly investigated. We purified various BCG subcomponents and analyzed in vitro their ability to enhance a Th1 polarized immune response as well as to increase lymphocyte-mediated cytotoxicity against bladder tumors. Human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) from healthy purified protein derivative-positive subjects were incubated for 7 days with whole BCG and various fractions (BCG cell wall, plasma membrane, cytosol, purified polysaccharides as glucan or arabinomannan, purified native proteins from BCG culture filtrate, recombinant 22 kDa protein, phosphate transporter PstS-2 and -3 proteins). IFN-gamma, IL-12, IL-2, and IL-6 production by stimulated PBMCs was compared to unstimulated controls and the phenotype of expanded cells analyzed by flow cytometry (FACS analysis). A (51)Cr-release assay monitored the cytotoxicity of amplified effector cells against T24 bladder tumor cells. Live BCG and most of its subcomponents (with the exception of cytosol, PstS-2 and -3) significantly enhanced IFN-gamma and IL-12 secretion, expanded CD3(-)CD56(+) cells and the non-MHC-restricted cytotoxicity against bladder tumor cells compared to unstimulated controls (all P < 0.001, t-test). IL-2 receptor blockage resulted in a clear reduction in the cytotoxic activity of stimulated PBMCs. Numerous BCG subcomponents thus provide positive stimuli for Th1 cell differentiation and enhance in vitro, non-MHC-restricted cytotoxicity against bladder tumor cells. Our findings provide the basis for the therapeutic use of several of these subfractions in experimental animal models bearing bladder tumors.
Five new inteins were discovered in a survey of 39 mycobacterial strains that was undertaken to clarify the role of RecA inteins in mycobacteria. They are all inserted at the RecA-b site of the recA gene of Mycobacterium chitae, 4. fallax, M. gastri, M. shimodei and M. thermoresistibile and belong to the MleRecA allelic family. Sequence analysis showed that although only M. tuberculosis harbours an intein at the RecA-a site the sequence of the RecA-b site is well conserved between species. Furthermore, the presence of inteins does not correlate with specific characteristics of the species such as pathogenicity or growth rate.
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Mycolic acids, long-chain (C70-C90) alpha-alkyl, beta-hydroxy fatty acids, are characteristic cell envelope components of mycobacteria; similar but shorter-chain substances occur in corynebacteria and related taxa. These compounds apparently play an important role in the physiology of these bacteria. The deduced N-terminal region of PS1, one of the two major secreted proteins of Corynebacterium glutamicum encoded by the csp1 gene, is similar to the antigens 85 complex of Mycobacterium tuberculosis which has been shown to be associated in vitro with a mycoloyltransferase activity onto trehalose. Overexpression of PS1 in the wild-type strain of C. glutamicum suggested the implication of the protein in the transfer of corynomycolates, evidenced by an increase esterification of the cell wall arabinogalactan with corynomycolic acid residues and an accumulation of trehalose dicorynomycolates. Overexpression of truncated forms of PS1 demonstrated that the crucial region for transfer activity of the protein involves all the region of homology with antigens 85. To establish the putative mycoloyltransferase activity of PS1, a csp1-inactivated mutant of C. glutamicum was biochemically characterized. Inactivation of the gene resulted in: (i) a 50% decrease in the cell wall corynomycolate content; (ii) the alteration of the permeability of the C. glutamicum cell envelope; (iii) the decrease of the trehalose dicorynomycolate content; (iv) the accumulation of trehalose monocorynomycolate; and (v) the appearance of a glycolipid identified as 6-corynomycoloylglucose. Complementation of the mutant by the csp1 gene fully restored the wild-type phenotype. Finally, a mycoloyltransferase assay established that PS1 possesses a trehalose mycoloyltransferase activity. To define the in vivo function of antigens 85, the csp1-inactivated mutant was complemented with the fbpA, fbpB or fbpC genes. Complementation with the different fbp genes restored the normal cell wall corynomycolate content and permeability, but did not affect either the fate of trehalose corynomycolates or the occurrence of glucose corynomycolate. Thus, PS1 is one of the enzymes that transfer corynomycoloyl residues onto both the cell wall arabinogalactan and trehalose monocorynomycolate, whereas in the whole bacterium the mycobacterial antigens 85A, 85B and 85C can transfer mycolates only onto the cell wall acceptor in C. glutamicum.
Members of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis group synthesize a family of long-chain fatty acids, mycolic acids, which are located in the cell envelope. These include the non-oxygenated alpha-mycolic acid and the oxygenated keto- and methoxymycolic acids. The function in bacterial virulence, if any, of these various types of mycolic acids is unknown. We have constructed a mutant strain of M. tuberculosis with an inactivated hma (cmaA, mma4) gene; this mutant strain no longer synthesizes oxygenated mycolic acids, has profound alterations in its envelope permeability and is attenuated in mice.
Heat-shock proteins (Hsps) from various origins are known to share a conserved structure and are assumed to be key partners in the biogenesis of proteins. Fractionation of the mycobacterial Hsp60, a 65 kDa protein also called Cpn60, from Mycobacterium bovis BCG zinc-deficient culture filtrate on phenyl-Sepharose followed by Western blotting revealed the existence of four Hsp60-1 and Hsp60-2 forms, based on their hydrophobicity behaviour. Hsp60-2 species were further purified by ion-exchange chromatography and partial amino acid sequences of cyanogen bromide (CNBr) peptides of purified Hsp60-2 species showed identity with the amino acid sequence deduced from the hsp60-2 gene, indicating that the various Hsp60-2 forms are encoded by the same gene. In addition, the mycobacterial Hsp60-2 was overexpressed in E. coli using the pRR3Hsp60-2 plasmid and analysed on phenyl-Sepharose. The elution pattern of the recombinant Hsp60-2, as well as that of Escherichia coli GroEL, was similar to that of the native Hsp60-2 from the culture filtrate of M. bovis BCG and entirely different from that of the mycobacterial antigen 85. Extraction of mycobacterial Hsp60-2 forms, recombinant BCG Hsp60-2 and E. coli GroEL with organic solvents releases various amounts of non-covalently bound lipids. The presence of lipids on Hsp60-2 was confirmed by labelling M. bovis BCG with radioactive palmitate. The radioactivity was specifically associated with Hsp60 in the aqueous phase and the 19 and 38 kDa lipoproteins in the Triton X-114 phase. Analysis of the lipids extracted from purified Hsp60-2, recombinant BCG Hsp60-2 and E. coli GroEL by TLC showed the same pattern for all the samples. Acid methanolysis of the lipids followed by GC analysis led to the identification of C(16:0), C(18:0) and C(18:1) as the major fatty acyl constituents, and of methylglycoside in these proteins. Altogether, these data demonstrate that lipids are non-covalently bound to Hsp60-2 and homologous proteins.
The antigen 85 complex of Mycobacterium tuberculosis consists of three abundantly secreted proteins. The recent characterization of a mycoloyltransferase activity associated in vitro with each of these antigens suggested that they are potentially important for the building of the unusual cell envelope of mycobacteria. To define the physiological role of these proteins, the gene coding for antigen 85C was inactivated by transposon mutagenesis. The resulting mutant was shown to transfer 40% fewer mycolates to the cell wall with no change in the types of mycolates esterifying arabinogalactan or in the composition of non-covalently linked mycolates. As a consequence, the diffusion of the hydrophobic chenodeoxycholate and the hydrophilic glycerol, but not that of isoniazid, was found to be much faster through the cell envelope of the mutant than that of the parent strain. Taken together, these data demonstrate that: (i) antigen 85C is involved directly or indirectly in the transfer of mycolates onto the cell wall of the whole bacterium; (ii) the enzyme is not specific for a given type of mycolate; and (iii) the cell wall-linked mycolate layer may represent a barrier for the diffusion of small hydrophobic and hydrophilic molecules.
Mycobacterium tuberculosis, one of the most prevalent causes of death worldwide, is a facultative intracellular parasite that invades and persists within the macrophages. Within host cells, the bacterium is surrounded by a capsule which is electron-transparent in EM sections, outside the bacterial wall and plasma membrane. Although conventional processing of samples for microscopy studies failed to demonstrate this structure around in vitro-grown bacilli, the application of new microscopy techniques to mycobacteria allows the visualization of a thick capsule in specimen from axenic cultures of mycobacteria. Gentle mechanical treatment and detergent extraction remove the outermost components of this capsule which consist primarily of polysaccharide and protein, with small amounts of lipid. Being at the interface between the bacterium and host cells, the capsule and its constituents would be expected to be involved in bacterial pathogenicity and past work supports this concept. Recent studies have identified several capsular substances potentially involved in the key steps of pathogenicity. In this respect, some of the capsular glycans have been shown to mediate the adhesion to and the penetration of bacilli into the host's cells; of related interest, secreted and/or surface-exposed enzymes and transporters probably involved in intracellular multiplication have been characterized in short-term culture filtrates of M. tuberculosis. In addition, the presence of inducible proteases and lipases has been shown. The capsule would also represent a passive barrier by impeding the diffusion of macromolecules towards the inner parts of the envelope; furthermore, secreted enzymes potentially involved in the detoxification of reactive oxygen intermediates have been identified, notably catalase/peroxidase and superoxide dismutase, which may participate to the active resistance of the bacterium to the host's microbicidal mechanisms. Finally, toxic lipids and contact-dependent lytic substances, as well as constituents that inhibit both macrophage-priming and lymphoproliferation, have been found in the capsule, thereby explaining part of the immunopathology of tuberculosis.
Pathogenic mycobacteria parasitize macrophages and reside within phagosomes, which do not fuse with lysosomal granules. Mycobacteria are also internalized by neutrophils, which possess at least two types of granules, specific and azurophil granules, the latter being specialized lysosomes. Here, we investigated the ability of mycobacteria to inhibit the fusion of these granules with their phagosomes in human neutrophils. It was found that when pathogenic (Mycobacterium kansasii and Mycobacterium avium) or nonpathogenic (Mycobacterium smegmatis and Mycobacterium phlei) mycobacteria were internalized by neutrophils, they induced the inhibition of azurophil granule fusion with phagosomes even when they were serum opsonized. In contrast, secretion of specific granule content and production of O2-, both of which contribute to the neutrophil bactericidal response, were triggered. Hck is a Src family tyrosine kinase associated with azurophil granules. During internalization of zymosan, azurophil granules fused with phagosomes and Hck was activated and translocated to the phagosomal membrane, whereas in neutrophils engulfing mycobacteria, Hck did not translocate and remained unactivated. The activation of the tyrosine kinase Fgr was not affected. These results indicate that 1) pathogenic and nonpathogenic mycobacteria trigger similar bactericidal responses in neutrophils, 2) phagocytosis and fusion of azurophil granules can be uncoupled by mycobacteria, and 3) Hck could be one of the key elements of the azurophil secretory pathway that are altered during phagocytosis of mycobacteria.
Mycobacteria elaborate a great variety of glycolipids of rather exotic structure. Some of these lipids are abundant cell envelope components and are exposed on the bacterial surface. These comprise the species-specific phenolic glycolipids, glycopeptidolipids, sulfatides, and lipooligosaccharides, and the ubiquitous phosphatidylinositolmannosides. Because pathogenic mycobacterial species are facultative intracellular parasites that infect and reside in host cells, some of them may represent potential virulent factors as they have been shown to inhibit both macrophage antimicrobial activities and lymphoproliferation. These biologic activities may derive, at least in part, from the modulation of the cell functions through the interactions between host membranes and these surface-exposed lipids whose structures are different from those of mammalian cell membrane components. In few cases purified glycolipids have been shown to profoundly affect the physical and functional properties of biologic membranes. Therefore, the enzymes involved in the biosynthesis of the biologically active glycolipids represent potential drug targets. However, definite proofs of their implication in the mycobacterial pathogenicity are lacking. Mutants unable to elaborate defined glycolipids are needed.
The review discusses current knowledge of the biosynthesis, composition and arrangement of the mycobacterial envelope, describes the biological activities of the constituents and considers how these activities may be relevant to the pathology of mycobacterial disease. The envelope possesses three structural components: plasma membrane, wall and capsule. Although the major biomolecules occurring in each of these parts are known, the distribution of numerous minor substances is poorly understood; an attempt has been made to assign them to particular positions on rational grounds. The plasma membrane appears to be a typical bacterial membrane but, though vital to the mycobacterium, probably plays little part in pathological processes. The wall partly resembles a Gram-positive wall, but is unusual in having a layer of lipid (mycolate esters) which is probably arranged to form a permeability barrier to polar molecules. The capsule, whose chemical composition has only recently been recognized, consists of polysaccharide and protein with traces of lipid; the arrangement of these components is imperfectly understood. Constituents of all parts of the envelope have biological activities which may be relevant. The likely importance of these activities in the overall effect of the envelope is considered.
Mycobacterium tuberculosis has evolved successful strategies to invade and persist within macrophages. Intimate pathogen-macrophage contacts dictate receptor choice and probably specify the intracellular fate of these microorganisms. Binding to specific receptors, such as complement receptor type 3, could provide an advantage. These interactions appear to involve surface polysaccharides and glycolipids.
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