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M L Richter

Publications and source records attributed to M L Richter.

At least 19 recordsLinked to original sources
PubMed2001

[Pancreatic exocrine insufficiency in patients with diabetes mellitus. Current state of our knowledge and practical consequences].

In recent years, a number of studies have been carried out, the results of which suggest that the exocrine function of the pancreas is significantly more frequently impaired than is the case in healthy controls. In particular when a patient presents with gastrointestinal complaints of unclear origin, unexplained fluctuations in blood sugar, or loss of weight, the possibility of pancreatic exocrine insufficiencyshould be included in differential diagnostic considerations. Abnormal stools and intolerance of dietary fat can be clarified on the basis of a careful history. The diagnosis is confirmed with the aid of simple laboratory tests, for example the chemotrypsin test or the detection of elastase 1 in the stools. By way of treatment, pancreatic enzyme replacement can be applied.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2001

Role of the ATP synthase alpha-subunit in conferring sensitivity to tentoxin.

Tentoxin, produced by phytopathogenic fungi, selectively affects the function of the ATP synthase enzymes of certain sensitive plant species. Binding of tentoxin to a high affinity (K(i) approximately 10 nM) site on the chloroplast F(1) (CF(1)) strongly inhibits catalytic function, whereas binding to a second, lower affinity site (K(d) > 10 microM) leads to restoration and even stimulation of catalytic activity. Sensitivity to tentoxin has been shown to be due, in part, to the nature of the amino acid residue at position 83 on the catalytic beta subunit of CF(1). An aspartate in this position is required, but is not sufficient, for tentoxin inhibition. By comparison with the solved structure of mitochondrial F(1) [Abrahams, J. P., Leslie, A. G. W., Lutter, R., and Walker, J. E. (1994) Nature 370, 621-628], Asp83 is probably located at an interface between alpha and beta subunits on CF(1) where residues on the alpha subunit could also participate in tentoxin binding. A hybrid core F(1) enzyme assembled with beta and gamma subunits of the tentoxin-sensitive spinach CF(1), and an alpha subunit of the tentoxin-insensitive photosynthetic bacterium Rhodospirillum rubrum F(1) (RrF(1)), was stimulated but not inhibited by tentoxin [Tucker, W. C., Du, Z., Gromet-Elhanan, Z. and Richter, M. L. (2001) Eur. J. Biochem. 268, 2179-2186]. In this study, chimeric alpha subunits were prepared by introducing short segments of the spinach CF(1) alpha subunit from a poorly conserved region which is immediately adjacent to beta-Asp83 in the crystal structure, into equivalent positions in the RrF(1) alpha subunit using oligonucleotide-directed mutagenesis. Hybrid enzymes containing these chimeric alpha subunits had both the high affinity inhibitory tentoxin binding site and the lower affinity stimulatory site. Changing beta-Asp83 to leucine resulted in loss of both inhibition and stimulation by tentoxin in the chimeras. The results indicate that tentoxin inhibition requires additional alpha residues that are not present on the RrF(1) alpha subunit. A structural model of a putative inhibitory tentoxin binding pocket is presented.

Amino Acid Sequence↗
PubMed2001

Assembled F1-(alpha beta ) and Hybrid F1-alpha 3beta 3gamma -ATPases from Rhodospirillum rubrum alpha, wild type or mutant beta, and chloroplast gamma subunits. Demonstration of Mg2+versus Ca2+-induced differences in catalytic site structure and function.

Refolding together the expressed alpha and beta subunits of the Rhodospirillum rubrum F(1)(RF(1))-ATPase led to assembly of only alpha(1)beta(1) dimers, showing a stable low MgATPase activity. When incubated in the presence of AlCl(3), NaF and either MgAD(T)P or CaAD(T)P, all dimers associated into closed alpha(3)beta(3) hexamers, which also gained a low CaATPase activity. Both hexamer ATPase activities exhibited identical rates and properties to the open dimer MgATPase. These results indicate that: a) the hexamer, as the dimer, has no catalytic cooperativity; b) aluminium fluoride does not inhibit their MgATPase activity; and c) it does enable the assembly of RrF(1)-alpha(3)beta(3) hexamers by stabilizing their noncatalytic alpha/beta interfaces. Refolding of the RrF(1)-alpha and beta subunits together with the spinach chloroplast F(1) (CF(1))-gamma enabled a simple one-step assembly of two different hybrid RrF(1)-alpha(3)beta(3)/CF(1)gamma complexes, containing either wild type RrF(1)-beta or the catalytic site mutant RrF(1)beta-T159S. They exhibited over 100-fold higher CaATPase and MgATPase activities than the stabilized hexamers and showed very different catalytic properties. The hybrid wild type MgATPase activity was, as that of RrF(1) and CF(1) and unlike its higher CaATPase activity, regulated by excess free Mg(2+) ions, stimulated by sulfite, and inhibited by azide. The hybrid mutant had on the other hand a low CaATPase but an exceptionally high MgATPase activity, which was much less sensitive to the specific MgATPase effectors. All these very different ATPase activities were regulated by thiol modulation of the hybrid unique CF(1)-gamma disulfide bond. These hybrid complexes can provide information on the as yet unknown factors that couple ATP binding and hydrolysis to both thiol modulation and rotational motion of their CF(1)-gamma subunit.

Calcium↗
PubMed2001

Formation and properties of hybrid photosynthetic F1-ATPases. Demonstration of different structural requirements for stimulation and inhibition by tentoxin.

A hybrid ATPase composed of cloned chloroplast ATP synthase beta and gamma subunits (betaC and gammaC) and the cloned alpha subunit from the Rhodospirillum rubrum ATP synthase (alphaR) was assembled using solubilized inclusion bodies and a simple single-step folding procedure. The catalytic properties of the assembled alpha3Rbeta3CgammaC were compared to those of the core alpha3Cbeta3CgammaC complex of the native chloroplast coupling factor 1 (CF1) and to another recently described hybrid enzyme containing R. rubrum alpha and beta subunits and the CF1 gamma subunit (alpha3Rbeta3RgammaC). All three enzymes were similarly stimulated by dithiothreitol and inhibited by copper chloride in response to reduction and oxidation, respectively, of the disulfide bond in the chloroplast gamma subunit. In addition, all three enzymes exhibited the same concentration dependence for inhibition by the CF1 epsilon subunit. Thus the CF1 gamma subunit conferred full redox regulation and normal epsilon binding to the two hybrid enzymes. Only the native CF1 alpha3Cbeta3CgammaC complex was inhibited by tentoxin, confirming the requirement for both CF1 alpha and beta subunits for tentoxin inhibition. However, the alpha3Rbeta3CgammaC complex, like the alpha3Cbeta3CgammaC complex, was stimulated by tentoxin at concentrations in excess of 10 microm. In addition, replacement of the aspartate at position 83 in betaC with leucine resulted in the loss of stimulation in the alpha3Rbeta3CgammaC hybrid. The results indicate that both inhibition and stimulation by tentoxin require a similar structural contribution from the beta subunit, but differ in their requirements for alpha subunit structure.

Ca(2+) Mg(2+)-ATPase↗
PubMed2000

Characterization of a phosphate binding domain on the alpha-subunit of chloroplast ATP synthase using the photoaffinity phosphate analogue 4-azido-2-nitrophenyl phosphate.

The photoaffinity phosphate analogue 4-azido-2 nitrophenyl phosphate (ANPP) was shown previously (Pougeois, R., Lauquin, G. J.-M., and Vignais, P. V. (1983) Biochemistry 22, 1241-1245) to bind covalently and specifically to a single catalytic site on one of the three beta-subunits of the isolated chloroplast coupling factor 1 (CF(1)). Modification by ANPP strongly inhibited ATP hydrolysis activity. In this study, we examined labeling of membrane-bound CF(1) by ANPP by exposing thylakoid membranes to increasing concentrations of the reagent. ANPP exhibited saturable binding to two sites on CF(1), one on the beta-subunit and one on the alpha-subunit. Labeling by ANPP resulted in the complete inhibition of both ATP synthesis and ATP hydrolysis by the membrane-bound enzyme. Labeling of both sites by ANPP was reduced by more than 80% in the presence of P(i) (> or = 10 mM) and ATP (> or = 0.5 mM). ADP was less effective in competing with ANPP for binding, giving a maximum of approximately 35% inhibition at concentrations > or = 2 mM. ANPP-labeled tryptic peptides of the alpha-subunit were isolated and sequenced. The majority of the probe was contained in three peptides corresponding to residues Gln(173) to Arg(216), Gly(217) to Arg(253), and His(256) to Arg(272) of the alpha-subunit. In the mitochondrial F(1) (Abrahams, J. P., Leslie, A. G. W., Lutter, R., and Walker, J. E. (1994) Nature 370, 621-628), all three analogous peptides are located within the nucleotide binding pocket and within close proximity to the gamma-phosphate binding site. The data indicate, however, that the azidophenyl group of bound ANPP is oriented at approximately 180 degrees in the opposite direction to the adenine binding site with reference to the phosphate binding site on the alpha-subunit. The study has confirmed that ANPP is a bona fide phosphate analogue and suggests that it specifically targets the gamma-phosphate binding site within the nucleotide binding pockets on the alpha- and beta-subunits of CF(1). The study also indicates that in the resting state of the chloroplast F(1)-F(0) complex both the alpha- and beta-subunits are structurally asymmetric.

Azides↗
PubMed2000

Important subunit interactions in the chloroplast ATP synthase.

General structural features of the chloroplast ATP synthase are summarized highlighting differences between the chloroplast enzyme and other ATP synthases. Much of the review is focused on the important interactions between the epsilon and gamma subunits of the chloroplast coupling factor 1 (CF(1)) which are involved in regulating the ATP hydrolytic activity of the enzyme and also in transferring energy from the membrane segment, chloroplast coupling factor 0 (CF(0)), to the catalytic sites on CF(1). A simple model is presented which summarizes properties of three known states of activation of the membrane-bound form of CF(1). The three states can be explained in terms of three different bound conformational states of the epsilon subunit. One of the three states, the fully active state, is only found in the membrane-bound form of CF(1). The lack of this state in the isolated form of CF(1), together with the confirmed presence of permanent asymmetry among the alpha, beta and gamma subunits of isolated CF(1), indicate that ATP hydrolysis by isolated CF(1) may involve only two of the three potential catalytic sites on the enzyme. Thus isolated CF(1) may be different from other F(1) enzymes in that it only operates on 'two cylinders' whereby the gamma subunit does not rotate through a full 360 degrees during the catalytic cycle. On the membrane in the presence of a light-induced proton gradient the enzyme assumes a conformation which may involve all three catalytic sites and a full 360 degrees rotation of gamma during catalysis.

ATP Synthetase Complexes↗
PubMed2000

[A patient with an ACTH-producing pituitary tumor with liver metastasis].

HISTORY AND FINDINGS: A 57-year-old woman had an ACTH-producing pituitary adenoma twice resected, followed by bilateral adrenalectomy for recurrent hypercortisolism. She subsequently developed a secondary postadrenalectomy syndrome (Nelson's tumour) which required further surgery and radiotherapy. The patient now presented for elucidation of a space-occupying lesion in the liver, found incidentally on abdominal ultrasonography. INVESTIGATIONS: Immunocytochemistry of the liver biopsy revealed ACTH-producing cells that were structurally identical to the cells found in the specimen resected at the previous operation. Changes were also found in the lower thoracic vertebrae, suspicious of metastases, thus suggesting a metastasizing hypophyseal carcinoma. RESULTS AND COURSE: Resection of the primary tumour and subsequent radiotherapy had arrested the corticotropic, thyrotropic, and gonadotropic functions of the pituitary, which had been adequately treated by administration of the corresponding hormones. Ocreotide, bromocriptin or cytostatics were not given because of their reported doubtful efficacy. At the time of diagnosis of the malignancy a curative operation on the liver or palliative embolization of the liver metastases were not possible because of their number and size. The bone metastases were managed palliatively by radiotherapy. CONCLUSION: No curative treatment has been found for the 66 cases of hypophyseal carcinoma reported so far. Screening investigations in patients with operated pituitary adenoma with the aim of eliciting an early diagnosis of possible malignancy cannot, therefore, be recommended, particularly since renewed tumour growth and local invasiveness do not constitute criteria for the diagnosis of pituitary carcinoma.

Adrenalectomy↗
PubMed2000

Hybrid Rhodospirillum rubrum F(0)F(1) ATP synthases containing spinach chloroplast F(1) beta or alpha and beta subunits reveal the essential role of the alpha subunit in ATP synthesis and tentoxin sensitivity.

Trace amounts ( approximately 5%) of the chloroplast alpha subunit were found to be absolutely required for effective restoration of catalytic function to LiCl-treated chromatophores of Rhodospirillum rubrum with the chloroplast beta subunit (Avital, S., and Gromet-Elhanan, Z. (1991) J. Biol. Chem. 266, 7067-7072). To clarify the role of the alpha subunit in the rebinding of beta, restoration of catalytic function, and conferral of sensitivity to the chloroplast-specific inhibitor tentoxin, LiCl-treated chromatophores were analyzed by immunoblotting before and after reconstitution with mixtures of R. rubrum and chloroplast alpha and beta subunits. The treated chromatophores were found to have lost, in addition to most of their beta subunits, approximately a third of the alpha subunits, and restoration of catalytic activity required rebinding of both subunits. The hybrid reconstituted with the R. rubrum alpha and chloroplast beta subunits was active in ATP synthesis as well as hydrolysis, and both activities were completely resistant to tentoxin. In contrast, a hybrid reconstituted with both chloroplast alpha and beta subunits restored only a MgATPase activity, which was fully inhibited by tentoxin. These results indicate that all three copies of the R. rubrum alpha subunit are required for proton-coupled ATP synthesis, whereas for conferral of tentoxin sensitivity at least one copy of the chloroplast alpha subunit is required together with the chloroplast beta subunit. The hybrid system was further used to examine the effects of amino acid substitution at position 83 of the beta subunit on sensitivity to tentoxin.

Adenosine Triphosphate↗
PubMed1999

The 20 C-terminal amino acid residues of the chloroplast ATP synthase gamma subunit are not essential for activity.

It has been suggested that the last seven to nine amino acid residues at the C terminus of the gamma subunit of the ATP synthase act as a spindle for rotation of the gamma subunit with respect to the alpha beta subunits during catalysis (Abrahams, J. P., Leslie, A. G. W., Lutter, R., and Walker, J. E. (1994) Nature 370, 621-628). To test this hypothesis we selectively deleted C-terminal residues from the chloroplast gamma subunit, two at a time starting at the sixth residue from the end and finishing at the 20th residue from the end. The mutant gamma genes were overexpressed in Escherichia coli and assembled with a native alpha3beta3 complex. All the mutant forms of gamma assembled as effectively as the wild-type gamma. Deletion of the terminal 6 residues of gamma resulted in a significant increase (>50%) in the Ca-dependent ATPase activity when compared with the wild-type assembly. The increased activity persisted even after deletion of the C-terminal 14 residues, well beyond the seven residues proposed to form the spindle. Further deletions resulted in a decreased activity to approximately 19% of that of the wild-type enzyme after deleting all 20 C-terminal residues. The results indicate that the tip of the gammaC terminus is not essential for catalysis and raise questions about the role of the C terminus as a spindle for rotation.

Amino Acid Sequence↗
PubMed1996

The chloroplast ATP synthase: structural changes during catalysis.

This article summarizes some of the evidence for the existence of light-driven structural changes in the epsilon and gamma subunits of the chloroplast ATP synthase. Formation of a transmembrane proton gradient results in: (1) a changed in the position of the epsilon subunit such that it becomes exposed to polyclonal antibodies and to reagents which selectively modify epsilon Lys109; (2) enhanced solvent accessibility of several sulfhydryl residues on the gamma subunit; and (3) release/exchange of tightly bound ADP from the enzyme. Theses and related experimental observations can, at least partially, be explained in terms of two different bound conformational states of the epsilon subunit. Evidence for structural changes in the enzyme which are driven by light or nucleotide binding is discussed with special reference to the popular rotational model for catalysis.

Catalysis↗
PubMed1995

A subunit interaction in chloroplast ATP synthase determined by genetic complementation between chloroplast and bacterial ATP synthase genes.

F1F0-ATP synthases utilize protein conformational changes induced by a transmembrane proton gradient to synthesize ATP. The allosteric cooperativity of these multisubunit enzymes presumably requires numerous protein-protein interactions within the enzyme complex. To correlate known in vitro changes in subunit structure with in vivo allosteric interactions, we introduced the beta subunit of spinach chloroplast coupling factor 1 ATP into a bacterial F1 ATP synthase. A cloned atpB gene, encoding the complete chloroplast beta subunit, complemented a chromosomal deletion of the cognate uncD gene in Escherichia coli and was incorporated into a functional hybrid F1 ATP synthase. The cysteine residue at position 63 in chloroplast beta is known to be located at the interface between alpha and beta subunits and to be conformationally coupled, in vitro, to the nucleotide binding site > 40 A away. Enlarging the side chain of chloroplast coupling factor 1 beta residue 63 from Cys to Trp blocked ATP synthesis in vivo without significantly impairing ATPase activity or ADP binding in vitro. The in vivo coupling of nucleotide binding at catalytic sites to transmembrane proton movement may thus involve an interaction, via conformational changes, between the amino-terminal domains of the alpha and beta subunits.

Adenosine Triphosphate↗
PubMed1995

ADP binding induces long-distance structural changes in the beta polypeptide of the chloroplast ATP synthase.

Binding of ADP to the beta polypeptide isolated from the catalytic F1 portion (CF1) of the chloroplast ATP synthase caused an increase of 10-20% in the steady state fluorescence intensity of fluorescent maleimides attached to the cysteine residue at position 63. Fluorescence lifetime distributions indicated that the beta polypeptide switched between two conformational states depending on the presence or absence of bound ADP. The fluorescence enhancement induced by ADP binding allowed a direct calculation of the dissociation constant for ADP of 0.7 microM. ATP did not cause a fluorescence enhancement but competed with ADP for binding to the same site. An apparent dissociation constant of 2 microM was obtained for ATP binding. Fluorescence resonance energy transfer experiments indicated that Cys63 is 42 A away from the nucleotide binding site on the beta polypeptide, confirming a previous measurement [(Colvert, K.K., Mills, D.A., Richter, M.L. (1992) Biochemistry 31, 3930-3935]. Frequency domain fluorescence anisotropy measurements indicated that the beta polypeptide has an irregular, elongated shape which is in good agreement with the conformation found in the crystal structure of the beef heart mitochondrial F1 enzyme [Abrahams, J.P., Leslie, A.G.W., Lutter, R., & Walker, J.E. (1994) Nature 370, 621-628]. The rotational correlation time did not change significantly upon ADP binding, indicating that ADP did not induce a large change in the overall shape of the beta polypeptide. The results show that the nucleotide binding domain and the N-terminal domain of the beta polypeptide communicate with each other over a significant distance via conformational changes.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Adenosine Diphosphate↗
PubMed1995

In vitro assembly of the core catalytic complex of the chloroplast ATP synthase.

The regulatory gamma subunit and an alpha beta complex were isolated from the catalytic F1 portion of the chloroplast ATP synthase. The isolated gamma subunit was devoid of catalytic activity, whereas the alpha beta complex exhibited a very low ATPase activity (approximately 200 nmol/min/mg of protein). The alpha beta complex migrated as a hexameric alpha 3 beta 3 complex during ultracentrifugation and gel filtration but reversibly dissociated into alpha and beta monomers after freezing and thawing in the presence of ethylenediamine tetraacetic acid and in the absence of nucleotides. Conditions are described in which the gamma and alpha beta preparations were combined to rapidly and efficiently reconstitute a fully functional catalytic core enzyme complex. The reconstituted enzyme exhibited normal tight binding and sensitivity to the inhibitory epsilon subunit and to the allosteric inhibitor tentoxin. However, neither the alpha beta complex nor the isolated gamma subunit alone could bind the epsilon subunit or tentoxin with high affinity. Similarly, high affinity binding sites for ATP and ADP, which are characteristic of the core alpha 3 beta 3 gamma enzyme, were absent from the alpha beta complex. The results indicate that when the gamma subunit binds to the alpha beta complex, it induces a three-dimensional conformation in the enzyme, which is necessary for tight binding of the inhibitors and for high-affinity, asymmetric nucleotide binding.

Adenosine Diphosphate↗
PubMed1995

Intrinsic fluorescence of the chloroplast H(+)-ATPase.

We have examined the intrinsic fluorescence properties of a highly purified chloroplast H(+)-ATPase (CF0F1) preparation [R. D. Kirch and P. Graber (1992) Acta Physiol. Scand. 746, 9-12). Unlike the catalytic CF1 portion alone, CF0F1 fluorescence was dominated by tryptophan fluorescence both at 277-nm excitation, favoring tyrosine excitation, and at 295-nm excitation, favoring tryptophan excitation. A broad tryptophan fluorescence peak was observed with a maximum at around 335 nm and a broad shoulder around 350 nm. Denaturation of the enzyme complex with guanidine-HCl resulted in a significant increase (approximately 40%) in tyrosine fluorescence. The fluorescence spectrum (lambda ex = 295 nm) of the inhibitory epsilon subunit isolated from CF1 resembled that of CF1, indicating the presence of two tryptophan species located in different environments. Fluorescence quenching by potassium iodide indicated a substantial increase in the solvent accessibility of one of the two tryptophans following isolation of epsilon from CF1. Thus, when epsilon binds to CF1, a tryptophan residue becomes partially buried, probably at an interface between epsilon and another (possibly gamma) CF1 subunit. Removal of the epsilon subunit from CF1 leads to an increase in tyrosine fluorescence of a magnitude similar to that obtained upon denaturation of the CF0F1 complex. The results suggest that the reversible association of the epsilon subunit with CF0F1 or with isolated CF1 may be monitored by following changes in the intrinsic fluorescence of the enzyme complex.

Chloroplasts↗
PubMed1993

Inhibition by tentoxin of cooperativity among nucleotide binding sites on chloroplast coupling factor 1.

Tentoxin, a cyclic tetrapeptide produced by the fungus Alternaria tenuis, is a potent inhibitor of the chloroplast coupling factor 1 from certain sensitive species of plants. We have shown that the beta subunit is at least partly responsible for conferring sensitivity to the toxin. This was confirmed by Avni et al. (Avni, A., Anderson, J.D., Holland, N., Rochaix, J-D., Gromet-Elhanan, Z., and Edelman, M. (1992) Science 257, 1245-1247) who demonstrated the importance for tentoxin sensitivity of an acidic amino acid residue at position 83 in the beta subunit sequence. In this paper we show that the Ca(2+)-ATPase and Mg(2+)-ATPase activities of CF1 lacking the delta and epsilon subunits, CF1(-delta epsilon), were fully sensitive to tentoxin, even after the gamma subunit is cleaved by trypsin into several smaller fragments. We also show that the isolated reconstitutively active beta subunit of CF1 does not effectively compete with CF1(-delta epsilon) for tentoxin binding. The results suggest that tight tentoxin binding requires the presence of at least the alpha and beta subunits but is independent of the delta and epsilon subunits. Tentoxin inhibited the release of a tightly bound molecule of ADP from CF1, which was induced by the binding of the ATP analogue adenylyl-beta,gamma-imidodiphosphate (AMP-PNP). AMP-PNP was shown previously (Shapiro, A.B., and McCarty, R.E. (1990) J. Biol. Chem. 265, 4340-4347) to cause two adenine nucleotide binding sites on CF1, sites 1 and 3, to switch their properties, possibly as part of an alternating site catalytic cooperativity mechanism (Boyer, P.D. (1989) FASEB J. 3, 2164-2178). It is proposed that the effect of tentoxin on catalytic cooperativity in CF1 results from tentoxin binding at an interface between alpha and beta subunits, preventing transfer of information between different nucleotide binding sites on the enzyme.

Adenosine Diphosphate↗
PubMed1992

Structural mapping of cysteine-63 of the chloroplast ATP synthase beta subunit.

The single sulfhydryl residue (cysteine-63) of the beta subunit of the chloroplast ATP synthase F1 (CF1) was accessible to labeling reagents only after removal of the beta subunit from the enzyme complex. This suggests that cysteine-63 may be located at an interface between the beta and the alpha subunits of CF1, although alternative explanations such as a conformational change in beta brought about by its release from CF1 cannot be ruled out. Cysteine-63 was specifically labeled with [(diethylamino)methylcoumarinyl]-maleimide, and the distance between this site and trinitrophenyl-ADP at the nucleotide binding site on beta was mapped using fluorescence resonance energy transfer. Cysteine-63 is located in a hydrophobic pocket, 42 A away from the nucleotide binding site on beta.

Amino Acid Sequence↗
PubMed1992

Over-expression and refolding of beta-subunit from the chloroplast ATP synthase.

We established a bacterial system for high-level over-expression of the spinach chloroplast atpB gene which encodes the ATP synthase beta subunit. Upon induction, atpB was expressed as at least 50% to 70% of total cell protein. Although the over-expressed beta polypeptide formed insoluble inclusion bodies, more than fifty percent of it was restored to a functional form by solubilizing the inclusion bodies with 4 M urea and slowly removing the urea by stepwise dialysis. The resulting beta subunit exhibited specific and selective nucleotide binding properties identical to those of the native beta subunit.

Base Sequence↗