Biomedical subjects

Maarten F Bobbert

Publications and source records attributed to Maarten F Bobbert.

At least 19 recordsLinked to original sources

PubMed2006

A model of open-loop control of equilibrium position and stiffness of the human elbow joint.

According to the equilibrium point theory, the control of posture and movement involves the setting of equilibrium joint positions (EP) and the independent modulation of stiffness. One model of EP control, the alpha-model, posits that stable EPs and stiffness are set open-loop, i.e. without the aid of feedback. The purpose of the present study was to explore for the elbow joint the range over which stable EPs can be set open-loop and to investigate the effect of co-contraction on intrinsic low-frequency elbow joint stiffness (K (ilf)). For this purpose, a model of the upper and lower arm was constructed, equipped with Hill-type muscles. At a constant neural input, the isometric force of the contractile element of the muscles depended on both the myofilamentary overlap and the effect of sarcomere length on the sensitivity of myofilaments to [Ca2+] (LDCS). The musculoskeletal model, for which the parameters were chosen carefully on the basis of physiological literature, captured the salient isometric properties of the muscles spanning the elbow joint. It was found that stable open-loop EPs could be achieved over the whole range of motion of the elbow joint and that K (ilf), which ranged from 18 to 42 N m.rad(-1), could be independently controlled. In the model, LDCS contributed substantially to K (ilf) (up to 25 N m.rad(-1)) and caused K (ilf) to peak at a sub-maximal level of co-contraction.

Elbow Joint↗

PubMed2006

Is energy expenditure taken into account in human sub-maximal jumping?--A simulation study.

This paper presents a simulation study that was conducted to investigate whether the stereotyped motion pattern observed in human sub-maximal jumping can be interpreted from the perspective of energy expenditure. Human sub-maximal vertical countermovement jumps were compared to jumps simulated with a forward dynamic musculo-skeletal model. This model consisted of four interconnected rigid segments, actuated by six Hill-type muscle actuators. The only independent input of the model was the stimulation of muscles as a function of time. This input was optimized using an objective function, in which targeting a specific sub-maximal height value was combined with minimizing the amount of muscle work produced. The characteristic changes in motion pattern observed in humans jumping to different target heights were reproduced by the model. As the target height was lowered, two major changes occurred in the motion pattern. First, the countermovement amplitude was reduced; this helped to save energy because of reduced dissipation and regeneration of energy in the contractile elements. Second, the contribution of rotation of the heavy proximal segments of the lower limbs to the vertical velocity of the centre of gravity at take-off was less; this helped to save energy because of reduced ineffective rotational energies at take-off. The simulations also revealed that, with the observed movement adaptations, muscle work was reduced through improved relative use of the muscle's elastic properties in sub-maximal jumping. According to the results of the simulations, the stereotyped motion pattern observed in sub-maximal jumping is consistent with the idea that in sub-maximal jumping, subjects are trying to achieve the targeted jump height with minimal energy expenditure.

Computer Simulation↗

PubMed2006

Vertical jumping performance of bonobo (Pan paniscus) suggests superior muscle properties.

Vertical jumping was used to assess muscle mechanical output in bonobos and comparisons were drawn to human jumping. Jump height, defined as the vertical displacement of the body centre of mass during the airborne phase, was determined for three bonobos of varying age and sex. All bonobos reached jump heights above 0.7 m, which greatly exceeds typical human maximal performance (0.3-0.4m). Jumps by one male bonobo (34 kg) and one human male (61.5 kg) were analysed using an inverse dynamics approach. Despite the difference in size, the mechanical output delivered by the bonobo and the human jumper during the push-off was similar: about 450 J, with a peak power output close to 3000 W. In the bonobo, most of the mechanical output was generated at the hips. To account for the mechanical output, the muscles actuating the bonobo's hips (directly and indirectly) must deliver muscle-mass-specific power and work output of 615 Wkg-1 and 92 Jkg-1, respectively. This was twice the output expected on the basis of muscle mass specific work and power in other jumping animals but seems physiologically possible. We suggest that the difference is due to a higher specific force (force per unit of cross-sectional area) in the bonobo.

Age Factors↗

PubMed2006

Is equilibrium point control feasible for fast goal-directed single-joint movements?

Several types of equilibrium point (EP) controllers have been proposed for the control of posture and movement. EP controllers are appealing from a computational perspective because they do not require solving the "inverse dynamic problem" (i.e., computation of the torques required to move a system along a desired trajectory). It has been argued that EP controllers are not capable of controlling fast single-joint movements. To refute this statement, several extensions have been proposed, although these have been tested using models in which only the tendon compliance, force-length-velocity relation, and mechanical interaction between tendon and contractile element were not adequately represented. In the present study, fast elbow-joint movements were measured and an attempt was made to reproduce these using a realistic musculoskeletal model of the human arm. Three types of EP controllers were evaluated: an open-loop alpha-controller, a closed-loop lambda-controller, and a hybrid open- and closed-loop controller. For each controller we considered a continuous version and a version in which the control signals were sent out intermittently. Only the intermittent hybrid EP controller was capable of generating movements that were as fast as those of the subjects. As a result of the nonlinear muscle properties, the hybrid EP controller requires a more detailed representation of static muscle properties than generally assumed in the context of EP control. In sum, this study shows that fast single-joint movements can be realized without explicitly solving the inverse dynamics problem, but in a less straightforward manner than implied by proponents of conventional EP controllers.

Adult↗

PubMed2006

Fast unilateral isometric knee extension torque development and bilateral jump height.

PURPOSE: We hypothesized that the initial rate (first 40 ms) of unilateral knee extensor torque development during a maximally fast isometric contraction would depend on the subjects' ability for fast neural activation and that it would predict bilateral jumping performance. METHODS: Nine males (21.8 +/- 0.9 yr, means +/- SD) performed unilateral fast isometric knee extensions (120 degrees knee angle) without countermovement on a dynamometer and bilateral squat jumps (SJ) and countermovement jumps (CMJ) starting from 90 and 120 degrees knee angles (full extension = 180 degrees ). The dynamometer contractions started either from full relaxation or from an isometric pre-tension (15% maximal isometric torque, Tmax). Torque time integral for the first 40 ms after torque onset (TTI-40, normalized to Tmax) and averaged normalized rectified knee extensor EMG for 40 ms before fast torque onset (EMG-40) were used to quantify initial torque rise and voluntary muscle activation. RESULTS: TTI-40 without pre-tension (range: 0.02-0.19% Tmax per second) was significantly lower than TTI-40 with pre-tension, and both were significantly (r = 0.81 and 0.80) related to EMG-40. During jumping, similar significant positive relations were found between jump height and knee extensor EMG during the first 100 ms of the rise in ground reaction force. There also were significant positive linear relations between dynamometer TTI-40 and jump height (r = 0.75 (SJ 90), 0.84 (SJ 120), 0.76 (CMJ 90), and 0.86 (CMJ 120)) but not between dynamometer Tmax and jump height (-0.16 < r < 0.02). CONCLUSION: One-legged TTI-40 to a large extent explained the variation in jump height. The ability to produce a high efferent neural drive before muscle contraction seemed to dominate performance in both the simple single-joint isometric task and the complex multijoint dynamic task.

Adult↗

PubMed2005

Scaling and jumping: gravity loses grip on small jumpers.

There are several ways to quantify jumping performance, a common definition being the height gained by the body's centre of mass (CM) in the airborne phase. Under this definition, jump height is determined by take-off velocity. According to the existing literature on jumping and scaling, take-off velocity, and hence jumping performance is independent of size because the energy that differently sized geometrically scaled jumpers can generate with their muscles is proportional to their mass. In this article it is shown, based on a simple energy balance, that it is incorrect to presume that jump height does not depend on size. Contrary to common belief, size as such has does have an effect on take-off velocity, putting small jumpers at a mechanical advantage, as is shown analytically. To quantify the effect of size on take-off velocity, a generic jumper model was scaled geometrically and evaluated numerically. While a 70-kg jumper took off at 2.65 m/s and raised its CM by 0.36 m after take-off, a perfectly geometrically similar jumper of 0.7 g reached a take-off velocity of 3.46 m/s and raised its CM by 0.61 m. The reason for the better performance of small jumpers is their higher efficacy in transforming the energy generated by the actuators into energy due to vertical velocity of the CM. Considering the ecological and evolutionary relevance of different definitions of jump height, size-dependent efficacy might explain why habitual jumping is especially prominent among small animals such as insects.

Acceleration↗

PubMed2005

Explanation of the bilateral deficit in human vertical squat jumping.

In the literature, it has been reported that the mechanical output per leg is less in two-leg jumps than in one-leg jumps. This so-called bilateral deficit has been attributed to a reduced neural drive to muscles in two-leg jumps. The purpose of the present study was to investigate the possible contribution of nonneural factors to the bilateral deficit in jumping. We collected kinematics, ground reaction forces, and electromyograms of eight human subjects performing two-leg and one-leg (right leg) squat jumps and calculated mechanical output per leg. We also used a model of the human musculoskeletal system to simulate two-leg and one-leg jumps, starting from the initial position observed in the subjects. The model had muscle stimulation as input, which was optimized using jump height as performance criterion. The model did not incorporate a reduced maximal neural drive in the two-leg jump. Both in the subjects and in the model, the work of the right leg was more than 20% less in the two-leg jump than in the one-leg jump. Peak electromyogram levels in the two-leg jump were reduced on average by 5%, but the reduction was only statistically significant in m. rectus femoris. In the model, approximately 75% of the bilateral deficit in work per leg was explained by higher shortening velocities in the two-leg jump, and the remainder was explained by lower active state of muscles. It was concluded that the bilateral deficit in jumping is primarily caused by the force-velocity relationship rather than by a reduction of neural drive.

Electromyography↗

PubMed2005

EMG modulation in anticipation of a possible trip during walking in young and older adults.

This study investigated whether changes in lower limb muscle activity occurred in anticipation of a possible perturbation in 11 young (mean age 27 years) and 11 older (mean age 68 years) adults. Altered muscle activity could affect tripping responses and consequently the ecological validity of experimental results of studies on tripping. It was hypothesized that anticipatory muscle activity would be present immediately after a trip, and decrease after several subsequent unperturbed (forewarned) walking trials. Electromyograms of lower limb muscles were measured in 3 conditions: during normal walking, during forewarned walking immediately after a trip, and during forewarned walking several trials after a trip had occurred. Small but statistically significant differences in averaged muscle activity over a stride were found among conditions. Young adults showed slightly increased activity immediately after tripping (co-contraction) in hamstrings, quadriceps and tibialis anterior muscles. This increased activity diminished after several unperturbed trials, although it did not return to the baseline activity levels during normal walking. In older adults, an increased muscle activity among conditions was only discerned in tibialis anterior and soleus muscles. This suggested that older adults prefer to avoid contact with the obstacle over joint stiffening. Yet, for both age-groups, the increases in muscle activity were very small when compared to tripping responses reported in the literature. Therefore, anticipatory effects are not expected to jeopardize the validity of experiments in which subjects are perturbed more than once.

Accidental Falls↗

PubMed2005

Push-off reactions in recovery after tripping discriminate young subjects, older non-fallers and older fallers.

Tripping is a major cause for falls, especially in the elderly. This study investigated whether falls in the elderly can be attributed to inadequate push-off reactions by the support limb in the recovery after a trip. Twelve young (20-34 years) and eleven older (65-72 years) men and women walked over a platform and were tripped several times over an obstacle that suddenly appeared from the floor. Kinematics and ground reactions forces of the support limb during push-off were measured of falls and successful recoveries. Young subjects did not fall. The older subjects were divided into a group of four non-fallers and seven fallers. Older fallers showed insufficient reduction of the angular momentum during push-off and less proper placement of the recovery limb. This was due to a lower rate of change of moment generation in all support limb joints and a lower peak ankle moment. Onset of knee moment generation was slightly delayed in older fallers. Improvement over trials was ascribed to better positioning of the recovery limb, as no clear differences were seen in the joint moments of the support limb. In conclusion, the contribution of the support limb to prevent a fall after tripping is decreased in older adults. Lower limb strength could be an underlying factor and strength training might help to reduce fall risk.

Accidental Falls↗

PubMed2005

How early reactions in the support limb contribute to balance recovery after tripping.

Tripping causes a forward angular momentum that has to be arrested to prevent a fall. The support limb, contralateral to the obstructed swing limb, can contribute to an adequate recovery by providing time and clearance for proper positioning of the recovery limb, and by restraining the angular momentum of the body during push-off. The present study investigated how such a contribution is achieved by the support limb in terms of response times and muscle moment generation, in order to provide more insight in the requirements for successful recovery after tripping. Twelve young adults repeatedly walked over a platform in which 21 obstacles were hidden. Each subject was tripped over one of these obstacles during mid-swing in at least five trials. Kinematics, dynamics and muscle activity were measured. Very rapid responses were seen in the muscles of the support limb (approximately 65 ms), causing fast increases in muscle moments in the joints during the primary phase of recovery. Especially a large ankle plantar flexion moment (204 Nm), a knee flexion moment (-54 Nm) and a hip extension moment (52 Nm), generated by triceps surae and hamstring muscle activity, brought about the necessary push-off reaction and simultaneously caused a restraining of the forward angular momentum of the body. These required joint moments could be a problem for the elderly, who might not be able to generate such powerful moments. Strength training in these muscle groups may be indicated in elderly subjects to reduce the risk of falling after a trip.

Accidental Falls↗

PubMed2005

Length-dependent [Ca2+] sensitivity adds stiffness to muscle.

It is well documented that muscle fibers become more sensitive for [Ca2+] with increasing sarcomere length. In mechanical terms this length-dependent [Ca2+] sensitivity (LDCS) adds to the stiffness of muscle fibers, because muscle force, normalized for the force-length relationship at maximal stimulation, increases with contractile element (CE) length. Although LDCS is well-documented in the physiological literature, it is ignored in most motor control studies. The aim of the present study was to investigate the importance of LDCS as a contributor to the stiffness of a muscle. Comparison of experimental data with predictions derived from the model of activation dynamics proposed by Hatze (Myocybernetic Control Models of Skeletal Muscle, University of South Africa, Pretoria, 1981, pp. 31-42) indicated that this model captures the main characteristics of LDCS well. It was shown that LDCS accounts for the experimentally observed shifts in optimum length at sub-maximal stimulation levels. Furthermore, it was shown that in conditions with low-to-medium muscle stimulation, the contribution of LDCS to the total amount of stiffness provided by the muscle is substantial. It was concluded that LDCS is an important muscle property and should be taken into account in studies concerning motor control.

Animals↗

PubMed2005

Can jumping capacity of adult show jumping horses be predicted on the basis of submaximal free jumps at foal age? A longitudinal study.

The purpose of this study was to quantify performance characteristics of good jumping horses, and to determine whether these were already detectable at foal age. Kinematic data were collected of horses performing free jumps over a 0.60 m high fence at six months of age and of these same horses jumping with a rider over a 1.15 m high fence at five years of age. At five years of age the horses were divided into three groups on the basis of a puissance competition: a group of seven best jumpers that made no errors and in the end cleared a 1.50 m high fence, a group of nine worst jumpers that were unable to clear a 1.40 m high fence, and an intermediate group of 13 horses. Longitudinal kinematic data was available for all seven best jumpers and for six of the nine worst jumpers. Average values of variables for the best jumpers were compared with those of the worst jumpers for the jumps over 1.15 m. In the group of best jumpers, the forelimbs were shorter at forelimb clearance due to increased elbow flexion, and the hind limbs were further retroflexed at hind limb clearance. The same superior technique in clearing fences with the limbs was also found in this group at six months of age. Nevertheless, for individual horses it turned out to be too far-fetched to predict adult jumping capacity on the basis of kinematic variables collected during submaximal jumps at foal age.

Aging↗

PubMed2005

Dynamics of the in-run in ski jumping: a simulation study.

A ski jumper tries to maintain an aerodynamic position in the in-run during changing environmental forces. The purpose of this study was to analyze the mechanical demands on a ski jumper taking the in-run in a static position. We simulated the in-run in ski jumping with a 4-segment forward dynamic model (foot, leg, thigh, and upper body). The curved path of the in-run was used as kinematic constraint, and drag, lift, and snow friction were incorporated. Drag and snow friction created a forward rotating moment that had to be counteracted by a plantar flexion moment and caused the line of action of the normal force to pass anteriorly to the center of mass continuously. The normal force increased from 0.88 G on the first straight to 1.65 G in the curve. The required knee joint moment increased more because of an altered center of pressure. During the transition from the straight to the curve there was a rapid forward shift of the center of pressure under the foot, reflecting a short but high angular acceleration. Because unrealistically high rates of change of moment are required, an athlete cannot do this without changing body configuration which reduces the required rate of moment changes.

Friction↗

PubMed2005

Experimental evaluation of the power balance model of speed skating.

Prediction of speed skating performance with a power balance model requires assumptions about the kinetics of energy production, skating efficiency, and skating technique. The purpose of this study was to evaluate these parameters during competitive imitations for the purpose of improving model predictions. Elite speed skaters (n = 8) performed races and submaximal efficiency tests. External power output (P(o)) was calculated from movement analysis and aerodynamic models and ice friction measurements. Aerobic kinetics was calculated from breath-by-breath oxygen uptake (Vo(2)). Aerobic power (P(aer)) was calculated from measured skating efficiency. Anaerobic power (P(an)) kinetics was determined by subtracting P(aer) from P(o). We found gross skating efficiency to be 15.8% (1.8%). In the 1,500-m event, the kinetics of P(an) was characterized by a first-order system as P(an) = 88 + 556e(-0.0494t) (in W, where t is time). The rate constant for the increase in P(aer) was -0.153 s(-1), the time delay was 8.7 s, and the peak P(aer) was 234 W; P(aer) was equal to 234[1 - e(-0.153(t-8.7))] (in W). Skating position changed with preextension knee angle increasing and trunk angle decreasing throughout the event. We concluded the pattern of P(aer) to be quite similar to that reported during other competitive imitations, with the exception that the increase in P(aer) was more rapid. The pattern of P(an) does not appear to fit an "all-out" pattern, with near zero values during the last portion of the event, as assumed in our previous model (De Koning JJ, de Groot G, and van Ingen Schenau GJ. J Biomech 25: 573-580, 1992). Skating position changed in ways different from those assumed in our previous model. In addition to allowing improved predictions, the results demonstrate the importance of observations in unique subjects to the process of model construction.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2005

Contribution of the forelimbs and hindlimbs of the horse to mechanical energy changes in jumping.

The purpose of the present study was to gain more insight into the contribution of the forelimbs and hindlimbs of the horse to energy changes during the push-off for a jump. For this purpose, we collected kinematic data at 240 Hz from 23 5-year-old Warmbloods (average mass: 595 kg) performing free jumps over a 1.15 m high fence. From these data, we calculated the changes in mechanical energy and the changes in limb length and joint angles. The force carried by the forelimbs and the amount of energy stored was estimated from the distance between elbow and hoof, assuming that this part of the leg behaved as a linear spring. During the forelimb push, the total energy first decreased by 3.2 J kg(-1) and then increased again by 4.2 J kg(-1) to the end of the forelimb push. At the end of the forelimb push, the kinetic energy due to horizontal velocity of the centre of mass was 1.6 J kg(-1) less than at the start, while the effective energy (energy contributing to jump height) was 2.3 J kg(-1) greater. It was investigated to what extent these changes could involve passive spring-like behaviour of the forelimbs. The amount of energy stored and re-utilized in the distal tendons during the forelimb push was estimated to be on average 0.4 J kg(-1) in the trailing forelimb and 0.23 J kg(-1) in the leading forelimb. This means that a considerable amount of energy was first dissipated and subsequently regenerated by muscles, with triceps brachii probably being the most important contributor. During the hindlimb push, the muscles of the leg were primarily producing energy. The total increase in energy was 2.5 J kg(-1) and the peak power output amounted to 71 W kg(-1).

Animals↗

PubMed2005

Is the effect of a countermovement on jump height due to active state development?

PURPOSE: To investigate whether the difference in jump height between countermovement jumps (CMJ) and squat jumps (SJ) could be explained by a difference in active state during propulsion. METHODS: Simulations were performed with a model of the human musculoskeletal system comprising four body segments and six muscles. The model's only input was STIM, the stimulation of muscles, which could be switched "off" or "on." After switching "on," STIM increased to its maximum at a fixed rate of change (dSTIM/dt). For various values of dSTIM/dt, stimulation switch times were optimized to produce a maximum height CMJ. From this CMJ, the configuration at the lowest height of the center of gravity (CG) was selected and used as static starting configuration for simulation of SJ. Next, STIM-switch times were optimized to find the maximum height SJ. RESULTS: Simulated CMJ and SJ closely resembled jumps of human subjects. Maximum jump height of the model was greater in CMJ than in SJ, with the difference ranging from 0.4 cm at infinitely high dSTIM/dt to about 2.5 cm at the lowest dSTIM/dt investigated. The greater jump height in CMJ was due to a greater work output of the hip extensor muscles. These muscles could produce more force and work over the first 30% of their shortening range in CMJ, due to the fact that they had a higher active state in CMJ than in SJ. CONCLUSION: The greater jump height in CMJ than in SJ could be explained by the fact that in CMJ active state developed during the preparatory countermovement, whereas in SJ it inevitably developed during the propulsion phase, so that the muscles could produce more force and work during shortening in CMJ.

Algorithms↗

PubMed2005

Effect of early training on the jumping technique of horses.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the effects of early training for jumping by comparing the jumping technique of horses that had received early training with that of horses raised conventionally. ANIMALS: 40 Dutch Warmblood horses. PROCEDURE: The horses were analyzed kinematically during free jumping at 6 months of age. Subsequently, they were allocated into a control group that was raised conventionally and an experimental group that received 30 months of early training starting at 6 months of age. At 4 years of age, after a period of rest in pasture and a short period of training with a rider, both groups were analyzed kinematically during free jumping. Subsequently, both groups started a 1-year intensive training for jumping, and at 5 years of age, they were again analyzed kinematically during free jumping. In addition, the horses competed in a puissance competition to test maximal performance. RESULTS: Whereas there were no differences in jumping technique between experimental and control horses at 6 months of age, at 4 years, the experimental horses jumped in a more effective manner than the control horses; they raised their center of gravity less yet cleared more fences successfully than the control horses. However, at 5 years of age, these differences were not detected. Furthermore, the experimental horses did not perform better than the control horses in the puissance competition. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Specific training for jumping of horses at an early age is unnecessary because the effects on jumping technique and jumping capacity are not permanent.

Age Factors↗

PubMed2004

Control of support limb muscles in recovery after tripping in young and older subjects.

Older people fall more often after tripping than young people due to a slower development of mechanical responses. This might be due to age-related changes in muscle properties, but also to changes in motor control. The purpose of the present study was to determine whether (a) timing and sequencing of muscle activation and (b) the magnitude and rate of development of muscle activation in recovery after a trip differs between young and older subjects. We focused on the support limb, as it contributes to recovery after tripping by counteracting the forward angular momentum. Ten young (25 years) and seven older (68 years) men and women walked over a platform and were tripped several times at different points in the gait cycle. Kinematics and EMG of the support limb muscles were measured. After tripping, rapid EMG responses (60-80 ms) were observed in hamstring and triceps surae muscles in both young and older subjects. A slightly increased delay (11 ms) was found only in the soleus muscle of the older subjects. The muscle activity patterns (timing and sequencing) were similar in young and older subjects, but the magnitude and rate of development of muscle activity were significantly lower in older subjects. Especially the lower rate of development of muscle activation in the support limb of older subjects is likely to reduce the rate of force generation, which can contribute to inadequate recovery responses and falls.

Adult↗