Biomedical subjects

Michelle Tucci

Publications and source records attributed to Michelle Tucci.

At least 55 records · Page 3Linked to original sources

PubMed2004

Stimulation of osteogenesis by means of sustained delivery of various natural androgenic hormones.

Sex steroids play an essential role in the maintenance of bone health throughout life, and the mechanisms by which these effects are mediated in a subject of much controversy. Osteoblast cells appear to be stimulated by androgens in vitro, however their use in vivo is limited due to the virilizing side effects as well as alterations in the lipoprotein profiles. The use of targeted sustained release of anabolic steroids may stimulate fracture healing without untoward side effects. The specific aims were: (1) to compare fracture healing in a rat femoral defect model using tricalcium phosphate lysine (TCPL) drug delivery systems to deliver T, DHT and AED for long duration; (2) to quantify the level of steroid delivered from the system; and (3) to use bone histomorphometric techniques to analyze new bone formation at the defect site. A total of 125 adult male Sprague Dawley were obtained and acclimatized for two weeks in the animal care prior surgical procedures. All animals were kept on a 12-hour day/night cycle and were fed Purina rodent chow and water ad libitum. The animals were randomly divided into five equal groups (n = 25 per group). Group 1 animals were used as the intact control. Group 2-5 animals were placed under anesthesia and a standard approach was used to create a 6-mm defect using a dental burr in the midshaft of the femur. Group 2 animals were implanted with a sham TCPL delivery system adjacent to the defect. Animals in groups 3, 4, and 5 received a TCPL delivery system loaded with T, DHT, and AED, respectively. Animals were weighed, x-rayed, and blood samples were drawn on a weekly basis. The rats were sacrificed after 3, 6, 9 12 and 15 weeks and reproductive, vital organs, and fracture calluses were collected and analyzed. Morphometric analysis of the femurs revealed that the use of sustained delivery of DHT induced remarkable bone ingrowth compared to the sham and other experimental groups. All treated femurs appeared healthy and normal bone architecture was observed by the end of the 6 week phase. Measurements of the inner perimeter of the bone on the endosteal side showed significant reduction in the androgens treated animals. The quantitative findings confirms our preliminary studies and endorsing the previous data that the sustained delivery of T or its metabolite (DHT) can stimulate the osteoblastic activities in which eventually causes an increase in the cortical bone density.

Adaptation, Physiological↗

PubMed2004

Effects of sustained delivery of thymoqiunone on bone healing of male rats.

The use of natural products as an alternative to conventional treatment in healing and treatment of various diseases has been on the rise in the last few decades. Nigella sativa, a natural herb has long been used as a natural medicine for treatment of many acute, as well as, chronic conditions. These include diabetes, hypertension and dermatological conditions. The specific objectives of this study were: (1) to successfully deliver the active component of black seed called Thymoqiunone (TMQ) at sustained level using TCPL drug delivery system; (2) to evaluate the physiological responses associated with sustained delivery of TMQ in femoral defect animal model (bone healing). A total of 15 adult male rats were randomly divided into three equal groups. Animals in group I served as controls, animals in group II served as sham while animals in group III served as experimental group (femur defect model). Group III animals were surgically implanted with TCPL capsule loaded with 0.02 grams of TMQ and 200 mg vancomycin. Blood samples, x-rays and body weights were collected and recorded weekly. At the end of 30 days post treatment, all animals were sacrificed and vital as well as reproductive organs were collected and analyzed histopathologically. Metabolic biochemical markers were also evaluated. The results of this study revealed the following: (i) gross anatomical observation indicated difference in healing pattern of animals in group III compared to those in group II (sham); (ii) no significant differences in all levels of cholesterol, proteins, malondialdehyde and alkaline phosphatase in all groups; (iii) no significant differences in the wet weights of vital as well as reproductive organs in all the groups. In conclusion, it appears that sustained levels of TMQ can enhance bone healing with little or no side effects on major vital and reproductive organs.

Adaptation, Physiological↗

PubMed2003

Plating of rat femoral shaft osteotomies: report of a technique and preliminary results.

Development of a small animal model to study fracture healing has been challenging in the past. Stabilization of osteotomy in small animals has mainly been accomplished using Krishner wires. Krisheners offer stabilization, but can result in a significant increase in fracture callus. An alternative approach using a modified twenty-five hole 1.5 mm stainless steel plate was used to stabilize a 5 mm femoral osteotomy, and fracture stabilization was followed for a period of 15 weeks in adult male rats. Fifty four of fifty-six animals (96%) were followed 15 weeks post operatively. Within the first few days post operatively, two animals showed evidence of fixation failure due to technical error, and the animals were humanely sacrificed. Otherwise, after two days post-operatively the remaining 54 animals were weight bearing. At 15 weeks post-operatively, the fracture was stable with little bone formation evident. Therefore, this technique can effectively be used to evaluate compounds which will enhance bone formation. The technique allows for stable fixation of the control with little callus formation and bone ingrowth. This model will allow for x-ray analysis to follow bone growth in relation to bone enhancing compounds.

Animals↗

PubMed2003

Bone sparing surgical options for total hip replacement.

Between 4/5/99 and 5/20/2002, our university performed 31 total hip arthroplasties in 27 young patients utilizing a conservative hip prosthesis developed at the Mayo Clinic. Eleven patients underwent Bipolar replacement, while the remaining twenty required an acetabular component. The patients ranged in age from 25 to 50 (mean of 39.9). The mean follow up was 12.4 months (range 4.5-27). Twenty-eight hips were treated for AVN secondary to RA, HIV, ETOH abuse, and SLE; while two underwent THA for OA secondary to trauma, and one for JRA. Three patients were lost to follow up at less than 6 months and were excluded from the study. The patients were followed for a minimum of 6 months utilizing the Harris hip score, the Charnley hip score, and radiographic evaluation including subsidence, radiolucency, and calcar resorption. Four patients (13%) had subsidence ranging from 1 to 3 mm at the most recent visit. One patients (3.2%) had radiographic evidence of radiolucency measuring 2 mm. Nine patients (29%) developed 1-3 mm of calcar resorption. No hips required revision. Thirty patients had improvement in their Harris hip score and Charnley hip score. The one patient who decreased his score had developed AVN secondary to ETOH abuse. Three hips had an intra-operative complication of lateral cortex penetration and required circlage wiring. Comparisons were made utilizing Multiple Logistic Regression to determine if preoperative BMI, Dorr score, and gender had an impact on the postoperative hip scores or degree of osteolysis, subsidence, and calcar resorption. Although the Harris hip score and Charnley hip scores significantly improved postoperatively, the preoperative BMI, Dorr score, and gender did not correlate with patient outcome. Our patients improved clinically in pain level, function and ROM. Further follow up will reveal if this component truly preserves bone stock for ease of future revision.

Adult↗

PubMed2003

Sustained delivery of Her-2/neu antibody by TCPL delivery device using adult male rats as a model.

In recent years, there has been an increased interest in saliva as a diagnostic tool. Diagnosis of many diseases, including gastric cancer and immunodeficiency, has been made using saliva. The purpose of this study was to determine whether Her2/neu antibody, made in response to certain carcinomas of the breast, could be detected in saliva when experimentally placed at a remote site. This study was conducted using two male SD rats, each weighing between 300 g and 500 g. One experimental animal received 200 microliters, and the other, 500 microliters, of encapsulated c-erbB-2 monoclonal antibody (Signet, Dedham, MA) intraperitoneally. Prior to capsule placement, baseline serum and saliva samples were taken. Samples were also taken twenty, sixty-eight, 140, 188, 308 and 356 hours post-placement. Saliva flow was induced by administration of ophthalmic pilocarpine prior to sampling. All samples were kept at -20 degrees C. Antibody detection was performed using a modified double capture ELISA system. Tissue samples from various organs were evaluated using standard laboratory staining and immunostaining techniques. The animal receiving the higher antibody concentration showed a markedly greater salivary level of the antibody than the other (peak 24.158 hnu/ml vs. 18.313 hnu/ml at 308 and 188 hours post-implantation, respectively). These results seem to indicate that Her2/neu antibody saliva levels may serve as a useful, non-invasive method in the early detection of some breast cancers.

Animals↗

PubMed2003

Growth factor expression in early stages of benign prostatic hyperplasia upon exposure to sustained delivery of androgens.

Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) is a condition that affects a significant population of older males, yet its pathogenesis is not clearly understood. This study was designed to give broader insight into the early development of BPH by looking at changes in growth factor production in the ventral prostate. To accomplish this, Sprague Dawley rats (n = 16, 250-300 g) were randomly divided into four equal groups. Three treatment groups were each implanted with ceramic drug delivery devices that were designed to deliver continuous physiologic doses of testosterone (T), dihydrotestosterone (DHT), and androstenedione (AED) for ninety-day duration. Immuno-histochemical analysis for epidermal growth factor (EGF) and basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) indicated whether these growth factors were involved in early processes of BPH induced by the delivery of androgens. Histopathological evaluation demonstrated increased positive reactivity for both EGF and bFGF in all steroid treated animals compared to controls. A similar trend was observed in the vascular endothelium. This information could be helpful in developing new methods for early diagnosis of BPH, but more importantly this knowledge provides the literature with clues about the cellular responses encountered at the initiation of the disease process.

Androgens↗

PubMed2003

The effects of sustained delivery of diosgenin on the adrenal gland of female rats.

Diosgenin is a steroidal saponin, which is extracted from the root of Wild Yam (Dioscorea villosa). It has been reported to have tremendous medical applications. In addition, as an herbal extract it appears to be free of any major adverse effects. Recently, Wild Yam has been used to minimize post-menopausal symptoms and is sold unregulated over the counter at a variety of pharmacy and health food stores. The specific objectives of this study were to continuously deliver diosgenin to adult ovariectomized female rats for 45 days and follow changes in body weight, organ weight and histopathological changes in the adrenal gland. Adult female Sprague Dawley rats were divided into three equal groups (n = 54, 250-300 gm BW). Rats in group I served as the control group, animals in group II were ovariectomized and animals in group II were ovariectomized, and supplemented with tricalcium phosphate (TCP) drug delivery system loaded with 500 mg diosgenin. The results indicated that ovariectomized animals had a significant increase in body weight and spleen weights. Slight increases in wet adrenal weights were observed in the ovariectomized group compared to the control animals. Histopathological evaluation of the adrenal gland revealed an increase in the cortical and medullary adrenal areas of the ovariectomized group and a significant decrease in these areas in the diosgenin treated animals (p < 0.001). The information is considered important because reduction in adrenal mass may poses a potential for major endocrine complications.

Adrenal Glands↗

PubMed2003

Structural changes in the kidney associated with ovariectomy and diosgenin replacement therapy in adult female rats.

The use of over the counter progesterone creams is on the rise and is thought to be a safe and effective means for controlling menopausal symptoms. The active ingredient in these preparations is the compound diosgenin. Diosgenin, which is synthetically derived from wild yams, is converted to human progesterone, aldosterone, cortisol and estrogen through a series of enzymatic steps. The efficacy and safety of these products has not been fully investigated in vivo. The objective of this study was to supplement ovariectomized rats with sustained release of diosgenin for 47 days and evaluate its effect on kidney structure. A total of 15 animals were randomly divided into three equal groups. Animals in group I served as intact control, animals in groups II were ovariectomized and animals in group III were ovariectomized and supplemented with a TCPL capsule containing 500 mg of diosgenin. Blood and body weights were recorded weekly and at the end of 47 days kidneys were collected and analyzed morphometrically. The results indicated significant increases (p < 0.05) in the body weight of ovariectomized animals compared to control and diosgenin treated animals. Significant increases were observed in the kidney wet weights of ovariectomized animals. Further analysis of the kidneys showed remarkable changes in both the glomerular length and area in ovariectomized animals. The results suggest that diosgenin was able to protect the kidney from morphological changes associated with ovariectomy. The mechanism is most likely responsible for this protection is the conversion of diosgenin to progesterone.

Animals↗

PubMed2003

The effects of sustained delivery of glucocorticoids on the adrenal gland of male rats.

The role of stress on the structural and functional capacity of multiple organs has not been well investigated. The objective of this investigation was to morphometrically evaluate the effect of sustained delivery of corticosteroids alone or in combination with selenomethionine (SE), by tricalcium phosphate (TCP) ceramic capsule, on the adrenals of adult male rats. Nine adult male rats were randomly divided into three equal groups. Control animals were not implanted, and thus served as the control group. Group I was implanted with TCP capsules loaded with 50-mg cortisol. Group II animals were also implanted with TCP capsules loaded with both 50-mg cortisol and selenomethionine, respectively. Surgical aseptic techniques performed following standard lab protocols. At the end of the experimental phase, the animals were euthanized and the adrenal glands were collected and weights were recorded. The retrieved adrenals were fixed, processed, embedded and sectioned (5 microns) following standard laboratory procedure. The sections were subjected to qualitative and quantitative evaluation using Image Pro Digital Analysis System. Data collected expressed in mean +/- SE and analyzed for statistical significance using analysis of variance. The results indicated that Group II animals had a significant increase in body weight compared to the control group. There was a slight increase in wet adrenal weights observed in the Group II animals compared to the control animals. Histopathological evaluation of the adrenal gland revealed a decreased in the zona fasciculata lengths in Group I, a slightly decrease in Group II, compared to the control group.

Adrenal Glands↗

PubMed2003

The role of sustained delivery of corticosterone alone or in combination with antioxidants on the cardiovascular system of adult female rats.

Corticosteroids are used in the treatment of anti-inflammatory diseases, and their side effects can result in hypertension as well as effects on the cardiovascular system. Recent studies have shown the beneficial effects of anti-oxidants to delay the progression of many diseases by eliminating free radical formation. Antioxidants, such as selenium, may have an affect on the cardiovascular systems. The safety and efficiency of these over-the-counter antioxidants have not been fully investigated in vivo. The objective of this study was to supplement, the adult female rats, with the sustained release of cortisol, selenomethionine, and in combination, to evaluate its effect on the cardiovascular and reproductive systems. A total of 16 animals were randomly divided into four equal groups. A total of four animals served as naive controls. Group I animals were supplemented with a TCP capsule containing 50 mg of cortisol. Animals in Group II were supplemented with a TCP capsule containing 50 mg of selenomethionine. Group III animals were supplemented with a TCP capsule containing a combination of 50 mg of cortisol and selenomethionine. Blood and body weights were recorded weekly and at the end of 24 days, hearts were collected and analyzed morphometrically. The results indicated a slight increase in the body weights of cortisol treated animals compared to the control, selenomethionine and combination treated animals. Significant increases were observed in the heart wet weights of cortisol and combination treated animals. Further analysis of the heart showed remarkable changes in the heart apex length in the cortisol treated animals. The results suggest that cortisol caused morphological changes in the heart that may be responsible for the change in the regulation and maintenance of the normal electrical activity of the heart.

Animals↗

PubMed2003

Delayed apoptosis upon the treatment of Hep-2 cells with black seed.

Nigella sativa (Black seed, BS) has been used to promote health and fight disease for centuries. The objectives of this investigation were: (1) to study whether agents such as cortisol and LPS alone or in combination induce cellular (Hep-2, laryngeal carcinoma) damage with time in culture (24, 48, and 72 hours) using apoptosis as a marker, (2) to determine if an immune stimulant such as BS, can protect Hep-2 cells from insult and ultimately thwart the programmed cells death mechanism. A total of 54 Hep-2 cell/tubes (50,000 cells per tube) were divided into six equal groups. Group one served as untreated control, while groups 2-6 were treated with either cortisol (10 ng/ml), LPS (10 micrograms/ml), BS (25 micrograms/ml), or a combination of LPS and cortisol and cortisol plus LPS plus BS, respectively. At the end of each phase the cells were harvested, heat fixed and stained with H&E to evaluate morphological changes. Immunohistochemistry, using antibodies against caspace-3 to evaluate cells undergoing apoptosis was conducted in all groups. The results of this study showed evidence of cells undergoing apoptosis at different magnitudes in all groups. However, the most dramatic change was seen in groups containing cortisol and LPS alone or in combination. This was supported by the fact that there were several adaptive responses observed in all phases. In addition, the exposure of BS to cells pretreated with cortisol and LPS showed evidence of protection against the progressive apoptosis.

Apoptosis↗

PubMed2003

The role of black seed in the proliferation and biochemical marker levels of Hep-2 cells.

For centuries, people in the Middle East and Southeast Asia have used Nigella sativa, also known as black seed (BS), for its homeopathic effects. The objective of this study was to investigate the role BS might have on the metabolic biomarkers of the Hep-2 cell line. The experimental design entailed six groups of five wells each (50,000 cells). Groups II through VI were treated with BS, lipopolysaccharide (LPS), cortisol, LPS + cortisol, and BS + LPS + cortisol, respectively. Group I was the untreated control group. At the end of 24, 48, and 72 hours, the total cell count, protein and MDA levels were measured by following standard lab protocols. Data collected from this study revealed that Hep-2 cells exposed to LPS and cortisol (group V) resulted in a decrease in cell proliferation compared to the control. BS treatment induced a higher proliferation rate than group V. Similar trends were observed in the metabolic behavior of Hep-2 cells as evidenced by the total protein and MDA levels. The exposure of BS showed a shift in the metabolic pathways. In conclusion, this study showed that exposure to LPS resulted in an alteration in the metabolic function and this phenomenon was further escalated under stressful conditions (increased cortisol exposure). In addition, the use of BS reversed the traumatic condition.

Biomarkers, Tumor↗

PubMed2003

HEp-2 cells exposed to glucocorticoids and LPS undergo organelle damage and apoptosis.

Glucocorticoids are potent anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive agents that are known to affect T cell-mediated inflammation by the inhibition of cellular proliferation and cytokine production. The literature is lacking in explaining the mode of action of such agents on the epithelial cells. Therefore epithelial cells (HEp-2) were used to determine the effects of cortisol administration or cortisol in the presence of LPS on the cells metabolic functions. Cells were treated with physiological concentrations of cortisol or cortisol + LPS for periods of 24, 48 and 72 hours. After each phase cell number, cellular damage and cellular morphology were determined. The results indicated that cortisol and cortisol + LPS treated cells inhibited cellular proliferation as well as cellular MDA levels as early as 24 hours. Analysis of programmed cell death by apoptosis staining for Annexin V revealed that cortisol and cortisol + LPS treated cells had lower positive response. However, these differences do not take into consideration the reduction in cell number in the cortisol and cortisol + LPS treated cells. Overall, the results indicate that cortisol has a remarkable effect on HEp-2 cellular proliferation similar to the reduction seen in the literature for T-cells. In addition to reduction in cellular number the cell's ability to adjust to a bacterial challenge may be directly altered. This information is important for managing patients who are immuno-suppressed with s respiratory tract infections.

Annexin A5↗

PubMed2003

The synergistic effect of conventional and sustained delivery of antioxidants on LNCaP prostate cancer cell line.

Studies have been limited involving antioxidants as a mode of treatment for prostate cancer. The goal of this study was to develop alternative treatment and prevention for the invasive behavior of prostatic mutations by exploring the synergistic effects of several commercially available antioxidants. The specific aims were to examine the viability, proliferation, and morphology of human prostate cells in culture upon treatment of low and high doses of vitamin E, selenium, and lycopene alone or in combination. In phase I, groups were treated with physiological doses of the experimental agents. In phase II, the same groups were treated in combination to observe any synergistic effect. Upon treatment with selenium, lycopene, and vitamin E, vitamin E treated groups demonstrated the greatest effect on most assays in the study. Data obtained from this study did not demonstrate that the antioxidants would eradicate LNCaP prostatic carcinoma cells; however, the suppression of the metabolic pathways, cellular damage, and lowered prostatic specific antigen was observed.

Antineoplastic Combined Chemotherapy Protocols↗

PubMed2003

Morphometric analysis of MRC-5 fibroblast like cells exposed to intermittent UV radiation.

The goal of this study was to develop a tissue culture model with and without cellular protection (anti-oxidants) in an attempt to prevent or treat squamous damage as a result of free radical generation. The specific aim was to evaluate the morphological responses of MRC-5 fibroblast cells exposed to UV-radiation and vitamin E supplementation. The criteria for the morphological evaluation was as follows; cell and nucleus shapes, size, N/C ratio, nucleus pleomorphism, hydropic swelling, as well as other features or characteristics of membrane and cytoplasmic alterations. The experimental design was divided into two phases. In the first phase the cells were exposed to radiation for 30, 45 and 60-minute intervals, the morphological evaluation was assessed using Image Pro Digital Analysis technique. In the second phase, vitamin E was administered to the cells before and after exposure to 45 min of radiation. Data obtained demonstrated that, forty-five minutes of radiation exposure caused traumatic stress to the cells, swelling, cellular debris and fragmentation. However, treatment with vitamin E pre and post exposure provided protection for the cells. Vitamin E treatment resulted in less cellular aggregation, more abundant eosinophilic cytoplasm and an overall healthy appearance. The data suggest that the use of vitamin E may minimize skin damage by protecting the integrity of the fibroblast cells for up to 72 hours in culture.

Cell Line↗

PubMed2003

Morphological evaluation of MRC-5 fibroblasts after stimulation with static magnetic field and pulsating electromagnetic field.

The quality of tissue repair and the speed with which that repair can be accomplished are the two major variables in the healing of any injury. Today, magnetic field exposure to traumatized areas has shown to be a promising tool in the healing process. The exact mode of action by which radiating and unchanging magnetic fields still has to be elucidated. The objective of this study was to evaluate the morphology of MRC-5 fibro-blasts after stimulation with static and pulsating magnetic fields. Under sterile environment, a total of 24 wells were loaded with 50,000 MRC-5 cells each and further divided into three groups. Groups 1 and 2 were exposed to magnetic fields, static and pulsating respectively. Group 3 wells were unexposed and served as the control group. The cells were monitored at 0, 24, 48, and 72 hours and representative views were captured using digital analysis techniques. The live cells were screened for cellular mobility, cell distribution, and cellular morphology (size, shape, lysis, and background). After 72 hours, the supernatants and cells of all three groups were collected and MDA analysis was performed to determine possible cellular damage. Group 1 cells continued to grow at a reasonable rate, but there was substantial cell membrane damage (high MDA levels, p < 0.05). Group 2 cells appeared to be very stressed under these conditions especially at the initial phase (24 hours). In conclusion, the use of pulsating magnetic stimulation can be beneficial in the healing process of soft tissues.

Cell Division↗

PubMed2003

LDL oxidation by androgen exposure using MRC-5 cell line as a model.

The relationship between LDL oxidation and atherogenesis has not been fully investigated. The objectives of this study were to investigate the effect of androgens (testosterone) on the intactness of LDL upon incubation with MRC-5 cells and to evaluate the morphological changes associated with the incubation of androgens with MRC-5 cells. A total of 72 tubes plated with MRC-5 fibroblasts (50,000) were divided into four equal groups. Each of these groups were treated with one of the following: serum only (control), low-dose LDL, high-dose LDL, and LDL + testosterone. The experiment was divided into 24, 48, and 72-hour periods. At the end of the incubation periods, representative samples from each group were used for the determination of LDL oxidation. This was accomplished through lipoprotein electrophoresis. Results of the lipoprotein electrophoresis indicate that LDL was modified during the incubation periods with low-dose LDL, high-dose LDL, and LDL + testosterone. This was evident by the variations in electrophoretic mobility displayed by the treatment groups. Morphological evaluations were performed using light microscopy. MRC-5 cells treated with LDL + testosterone resulted in significant cellular damage. Results from this study suggest that MRC-5 cells are capable of modifying the native form of LDL. However, further investigation is needed to determine the exact mechanism of LDL modification and the role of MRC-5 cells in its modification.

Androgens↗

PubMed2003

Cytopathological changes associated with continuous and intermittent exposure to glucocorticoids using raw cell line as a model.

In a world of pathogens, the ability to detect an incipient infection and to respond rapidly and appropriately to it, is a decisive part of our survival strategy. The innate immune system provides the first response to an infection by initiating an inflammatory response. The monocyte surface of the molecule CD14 is a key element in this response system. Over activation of the inflammatory response can lead to systemic inflammation and septic shock. Glucocorticoids are anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive agents that act on many cells of the body, including monocytes/macrophages. The specific aim of this investigation was to compare the role of conventional versus sustained delivery of Cortisol on the viability and morphology of RAW 264.7 macrophages. RAW cells were obtained from American Type Culture Collection. Standard laboratory protocols were followed in cell plating (10(4) cells/well), phase terminating, and morphological evaluation. The experimental design consisted of two phases. Each phase had non-treated control groups and experimental groups. The results of this investigation yielded that: (i) TCP drug delivery system was capable of providing sustained and continuous release of Cortisol as evidenced by survival of cells in all experimental wells, and (ii) regardless of the Cortisol concentration, RAW cells were viable throughout the experimental periods. Overall, the results of this study provide a comparative analysis of the modes of actions of steriods; and, the results document the effects of the susceptibility of infection based on route.

Animals↗