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Biomedical subjects

N R Schultz

Publications and source records attributed to N R Schultz.

15 recordsLinked to original sources
PubMed1993

Young and old adults' ability to use different standards to evaluate understanding.

In Experiment 1 we examined young (mean age = 22.88 years) and old (mean age = 70.79 years) adults' ability to evaluate their understanding of texts. We examined ability to detect nonsense words (a lexical standard), violations of prior knowledge (an external consistency standard), and inconsistent sentences (an internal consistency standard) that were nonadjacent in texts. Adults with more education detected more problems than less educated adults, and older adults were less able than young to use an internal consistency standard. No age differences were found for lexical and external consistency standards. In Experiment 2, older adults' (mean age = 71.02 years) ability to use an internal consistency standard of evaluation was affected by the amount of material intervening between inconsistent sentences, with hindered performance for nonadjacent inconsistencies. This was not true for younger adults (mean age = 22.59 years). Results are discussed in terms of older adults' possible retrieval difficulty and failure to regulate comprehension.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1993

The influence of gender and age on Halstead-Reitan neuropsychological test performance.

Age-cohort differences for seven tests from the Halstead-Reitan Neuropsychological Battery, for overall performance on the Impairment Index, and for a multivariate composite of the seven scores, were examined for 427 subjects falling into six age groups (15-24, 25-34, 35-44, 45-54, 55-64, and 65 years and over). Univariate and multivariate-discriminant analyses were performed. Poorer performance was observed across age-cohorts (linear trend) for all tests and the Impairment Index. A very modest Age-Cohort (linear trend) x Gender interaction was observed only for the Category Test. Decline in Category Test performance across age-cohorts was more pronounced for women than for men. For women, the best discrimination among age groups was observed for the Category Test. For men, Tactile Performance Localization Test discriminated best. The poorest discrimination among age groups was seen for Finger-Tapping for men and Tactile Performance Test--Total (time score) for women. Results were consistent with a model of specific nested within general decline. Although linear-trend across age groups was observed for all tests, the strongest discriminations were associated with neuropsychological tests of abstraction and complex problem-solving performance.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1990

The effects of age, blood pressure, and knowledge of hypertensive diagnosis on anxiety and depression.

Recent studies have indicated that heightened anxiety and depression in hypertensives, relative to normotensives, is particular to hypertensives' knowledge of their diagnosis. We tested the hypothesis that knowledge of hypertensive diagnosis (KHD) has a stronger association with anxiety and depression for younger than for older individuals. Samples were 239 subjects referred to a hypertension clinic with KHD and 90 subjects, never diagnosed as hypertensive, recruited as a normotensive comparison group. Two age groups, 21-39 and 45-65, were employed. Regression analyses indicated that higher unmedicated blood pressure (BP) values were associated with higher state anxiety but not trait anxiety or depression, after age, education, and sex were entered into the equations. Knowledge of hypertension diagnosis was related to higher scores on all anxiety and depression measures. However, evidence that BP values and KHD had stronger associations with anxiety and depression for a younger than for an older cohort was not obtained. Regression analyses performed within the hypertension clinic referrals indicated that the severity of hypertension as reflected by unmedicated BP values was unrelated to anxiety and depression, and that a history of treatment with anti-hypertensive medications was related only to higher somatic depression.

Adult↗
PubMed1990

Is blood pressure an important variable in research on aging and neuropsychological test performance?

Regression analyses using Blood Pressure, Age, and the multiplicative effect of Blood Pressure and Age as predictors of performance (on selected tests from the Halstead-Reitan neuropsychological test battery) were done. Three hypotheses were tested with subjects ranging in age from 20 to 72 years of age: (1) blood pressure values predict neuropsychological test performance over a wide range of hypertensive and normotensive blood pressure values; (2) blood pressure predicts performance within the narrower range of normal and borderline values; (3) blood pressure X age interactions, when observed over this age and education range, are such that negative blood pressure effects on performance are larger for younger than older subjects. Regression analyses confirmed each of these hypotheses and indicated that strength of prediction was not reduced when participants free from hypertension-related complications and medication were tested. Blood pressure X age interactions were seen for Trailmaking-B Test and the Tactile Performance Test-Localization for the primary sample. However, only Blood Pressure main effects were observed for the Average Impairment Rating, the Categories Test, TPT-Memory and TPT-Localization when age, sex, and education were controlled. Implications of these findings for the role of blood pressure in aging research and for longitudinal studies with subjects free from the need for treatment with antihypertensive medications are discussed.

Adult↗
PubMed1989

A longitudinal study of the performance of hypertensive and normotensive subjects on the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale.

Performance on the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale was followed over two 5- to 6-year intervals for essential hypertensive Ss (EH; n = 22) free from medical complications and for normotensive Ss (N; n = 20). EH were treated with adrenergic beta-blocking drugs, diuretics, or both. Mean age was 46 years (SD = 12.6 years), initially (Time 1). Results were unaltered by adjustment for initial age. N improved modestly on the Verbal scale, from Time 1 to Time 2 only. EH neither improved nor declined on the Verbal scale. Scores remained unchanged for both EH and N Ss for the Performance scale. Overall, and at Times 2 and 3, Verbal scores were lower for the EH group. It was concluded that neither decline nor improvement in cognitive function over time are necessary outcomes of modest, carefully treated, uncomplicated hypertension in the middle years.

Female↗
PubMed1989

A longitudinal study of neuropsychological performance by hypertensives and normotensives: a third measurement point.

The neuropsychological test performance of hypertensive and normotensive subjects was compared at three times of measurement over a 10-year period. The tests used were among those that are most sensitive to brain impairment in the Halstead-Reitan battery. In addition to individual test measures, a widely used clinical index of battery-wide performance--the Average Impairment Rating (AIR)--was used. Hypertensives exhibited lower mean levels of performance on the AIR at all times of measurement. However, the Blood Pressure Group x Time of Measurement interactions were not statistically significant, indicating that hypertensives and normotensives did not exhibit a differential rate of change (decline or improvement) over time. Hypertensives also performed more poorly for a measure of learning set formation (categories test) and two tests of memory for forms experienced by touch only (tactile perception memory and localization tests). However, Blood Pressure x Time of Measurement interactions were not observed for these measures.

Adult↗
PubMed1987

Clinical significance of cognitive performance by hypertensive patients.

Fifty-four subjects with uncomplicated essential hypertension and 54 normotensive subjects were compared with regard to a widely employed clinical index of cognitive dysfunction (the Average Impairment Rating) calculated from neuropsychological tests that discriminate between brain-damaged and neurologically normal persons. Hypertensive subjects exhibited lower mean scores on this index when education was ignored, but results were not the same for highly educated and less well educated groups. There were no differences between exceptionally well educated hypertensive and normotensive subjects, but in the less well educated group, hypertensive subjects performed more poorly than normotensive subjects. The percentages of hypertensive and normotensive subjects scoring in a cognitively impaired range on the Average Impairment Rating were low and did not differ for either education group. These data indicate the important role of subtle differences in education level with respect to positive or negative findings for studies comparing hypertensive and normotensive subjects and illustrate the important role of clinical neuropsychological indices of cognitive dysfunction when one wishes to make meaningful inferences regarding cerebral cortical function in hypertensive subjects.

Adult↗
PubMed1986

A longitudinal comparison of hypertensives and normotensives on the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale: initial findings.

This study was designed to compare changes in performance on the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale over a 5- to 6-year test interval for normotensives and medically treated, uncomplicated essential hypertensives. The results indicated that normotensives improved from Time 1 to Time 2 on the Verbal scale but not on the Performance scale. Hypertensives exhibited no significant improvement or decline on either scale, although they performed less well on the Verbal scale at Time 2 than did normotensives. They also performed more poorly on the Performance scale when Time 1 and Time 2 scores were averaged. Participants who returned for Time 2 testing and those who participated only at Time 1 were compared. Verbal scaled scores at Time 1 were higher for returning than for nonreturning hypertensives, but, for normotensives, no differences were observed for those who returned for Time 2 testing and those who did not.

Adult↗
PubMed1986

A longitudinal study of neuropsychological test performance for hypertensive and normotensive adults: initial findings.

This study was designed to compare changes in performance on selected measures from the Halstead-Reitan neuropsychological test battery over a 5 to 6 year interval for normotensive and medically treated, uncomplicated essential hypertensive adults. Mean performance level was poorer for hypertensive than for normotensive groups on an average impairment index and a number of the individual impairment rating scores, but no Time of measurement X Blood pressure interactions were observed. There was no evidence of improvement or decline for normotensive or hypertensive adults and no evidence suggesting that the hypertensive group could be characterized as "cognitively impaired" in an absolute or clinical sense.

Blood Pressure↗
PubMed1979

Anxiety and depression in young and middle aged hypertensive and normotensive subjects.

This study examined the effects of essential hypertension on measures of anxiety and depression for two age groups of hypertensive (free from hypertension-related pathology and/or cardiovascular disease) and normotensive subjects. Hypertensive subjects had significantly higher State Anxiety scores and Zung Depression scores than did normotensive subjects. These differences between the blood pressure groups were due largely to the scores of the younger hypertensive subjects. The results of the present study are consistent with previous results from our laboratory that have found that younger hypertensives differed (relative to controls) from middle aged hypertensives on measures, such as, symptoms reported on the Cornell Medical Index and WAIS Performance scores. The results of the present study were discussed within the context of age associated differences in response to hypertension and factors that might account for these differences.

Adult↗
PubMed1979

WAIS performance for different age groups of hypertensive and control subjects during the administration of a diuretic.

This study examined the effects of age and hypertension on WAIS performance. Previous studies have reported that hypertension adversely affects cognitive functioning, but few have considered the influence of hypertension on discrete age groups. Hypertension was found to be negatively associated with WAIS Verbal scores for younger (21 to 39 years) but not older (45 to 65 years) subjects. Further, younger subjects attained higher WAIS Performance scores than did older subjects. Medication history was not associated with performance levels for hypertensives, nor was performance of controls influenced by whether or not they were tested while on a diuretic. When WAIS Performance scores were analyzed for subjects matched on WAIS Verbal scores across age (21 to 39 vs 45 to 65 years) and blood pressure (normotensive vs hypertensive), a significant age by blood pressure interaction was found. The effect of blood pressure on Performance scores was found to be greater for younger than for older subjects. The association between plasma renin activity (PRA) level and WAIS Performance scores was also examined. Contrary to previous findings PRA was not related to Performance scores. The results are discussed in the context of previous hypertension research and their implications for comparisons across age levels.

Adult↗
PubMed1978

Symptoms reported on the Cornell Medical Index in relationship to hypertension and age.

This study compared young and old hypertensive and normotensive subjects with respect to the number of symptoms reported on the Cornell Medical Index (CMI). The hypertensive subjects had more physical and psychological complaints than did the normotensive subjects. Differences in symptoms reported between the blood pressure groups were not concentrated in one specific category (e.g., cardiovascular) but were distributed over several categories. Age did not influence the number of symptoms reported for either blood pressure group. The results were discussed in the context of the lack of specificity of symptoms reported by hypertensive subjects, and to what extent reported symptoms on the CMI are influenced by knowledge of one's blood pressure status.

Adult↗
PubMed1976

Feedback effects on spatial egocentrism in old age.

In literature on egocentrism, a decline in the ability to decenter with advanced age is indicated. In the present study, the extent to which perspective-taking feedback and practice reduce the egocentric performance of elderly individuals was examined. Eighteen men (X = 68.9 years, sd. = 7.14) and 18 women (X x 72.4 years, sd. = 3.65) were each assigned to one of three treatment conditions: feedback, practice, or control. Either immediately or 2 weeks after training, subjects were post-tested on measures of spatial egocentrism, fluid intelligence, perceptual speed, and volume conservation. The effect of perspective-taking feedback was to improve scores on the spatial egocentrism task, but this influence did not directly generalize to the other ability measures. Emphasis was placed on the importance of enviromental/experiential variables in the acquistion and maintenance of cognitive abilities in old age.

Aged↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Validity of a short form of the category test in relation to age, education, and gender.

Data for 289 subjects participating in an ongoing study of neuropsychological test performance were used to evaluate the relationship between age and prediction of performance on the long form of the Halstead-Reitan Category Test (CAT) from a short form developed by Calsyn, O'Leary, and Chaney (1980). The major questions were whether: (a) age, education, or gender would add to prediction of long (Y) from short form scores (X); (b) regression equations would be different for older and younger groups; (c) percent variance accounted for in long form scores by short form scores would be larger for younger as opposed to older subjects. For these relatively healthy subjects, prediction based on the short form was not enhanced in a clinically significantly manner by adding age, education, and gender as predictors. Regression equations for older and younger groups differed in intercept values but not in slopes. Percent variance accounted for in long form scores from short form scores did not differ when separate equations were used for younger and older subjects.

Adolescent↗