Biomedical subjects

P A Lympany

Publications and source records attributed to P A Lympany.

At least 19 recordsLinked to original sources

PubMed2005

The TGF-beta 1 gene codon 10 polymorphism contributes to the genetic predisposition to nephropathy in Type 1 diabetes.

AIMS: We hypothesize that transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-beta), a multifunctional growth factor which plays a key role in the development of tissue fibrosis, may be involved in the pathophysiology of diabetic nephropathy. Our aim was to examine three polymorphisms within the TGF-beta 1 gene, in codons 10, 25 and 263, for association with nephropathy in Type 1 diabetes. METHODS: We conducted a large case-control study using cases with Type 1 diabetes and clinical nephropathy. Controls were Type 1 diabetic subjects who have been injecting insulin for at least 50 years and have extremely low risk of nephropathy. Genotyping was by polymerase chain reaction with sequence-specific primers. RESULTS: There was a significant difference in the frequency of the TGF-beta 1 codon 10 genotypes in the diabetic nephropathy group (n = 420) when compared with the controls (n = 410, P = 0.007). There were no significant differences when the frequencies of the TGF-beta1 codons 25 and 263 genotypes in the diabetic nephropathy group were compared with the control group. CONCLUSIONS: In our study the TGF-beta 1 codon 10 polymorphism is associated with nephropathy in Type 1 diabetes and variation in this gene may contribute to the genetic predisposition to this complication in Type 1 diabetes.

Adult↗

PubMed2003

Inhibitor kappa B-alpha (IkappaB-alpha) promoter polymorphisms in UK and Dutch sarcoidosis.

The aetiology of sarcoidosis is uncertain; current thinking implicates exposure of genetically susceptible hosts to environmental factors. The nuclear factor kappa B (NF-kappaB) family of transcription factors are critical regulators of immediate transcriptional responses in inflammatory situations and immune responses. Inhibitor kappa B-alpha (IkappaB-alpha) inhibits NF-kappaB and plays a major role in controlling its activity. We investigated IkappaB-alpha promoter polymorphisms using sequence-specific primer-polymerase chain reaction, at positions -881 (A/G), -826 (C/T), and -297 (C/T) in Caucasian sarcoidosis patients (UK and Dutch [NL]), each with their own controls. Disease severity at presentation was assigned using chest radiography and pulmonary function indices. In the combined populations, the -297T allele carriage was more prevalent in patients than in controls (P=0.008). Three common haplotypes were found, of which haplotype 2 (GTT) was significantly associated with sarcoidosis in comparison with control subjects (P=0.01). Subgroup analysis revealed that the -826T allelic carriage was most prevalent in stage II disease, and more prevalent in stage III than in stage IV (P=0.01). The -826T allelic carriage did not show any association with lung function. These results indicate that the NF-kappaB activation pathway might be associated with the inflammation of sarcoidosis.

Disease Progression↗

PubMed2001

Ace gene I/D polymorphism and sarcoidosis pulmonary disease severity.

Previous studies of the insertion/deletion (I/D) polymorphism of the angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) gene in sarcoidosis have revealed both ethnic heterogeneity of I/D frequencies and controversy surrounding the association between the polymorphism and severity of disease. The objective of this study was, therefore, to clarify the role of the ACE I/D polymorphism in (1) disease susceptibility, (2) pulmonary disease severity (with particular reference to pulmonary fibrosis), and (3) pulmonary disease progression, in two distinct European sarcoidosis populations. Standard chest radiographic staging was performed on 118 UK and 56 Czech white patients with sarcoidosis at 2 yr from presentation. Pulmonary function data were analyzed, and patients were then categorized according to disease severity. A PCR-SSP assay was used to determine the ACE I/D genotype of each patient studied. The I/D allele frequencies from these patients were compared with frequencies from ethnically matched UK (n = 386) and Czech (n = 179) control subjects using a chi-square contingency table. No significant differences were seen in the distribution of the ACE I/D genotypes, allele frequencies or phenotype frequencies. Furthermore, no association was found between the ACE I/D polymorphism and pulmonary disease severity, fibrosis, and progression. We conclude that the ACE I/D polymorphism has no role in sarcoidosis susceptibility in European whites and that it is not a regulatory variant in this disease.

Adult↗

PubMed2001

Class II HLA associations with autoantibodies in scleroderma: a highly significant role for HLA-DP.

Scleroderma is a condition of variable phenotype characterised by fibrosis of the skin and internal organs. There is a range of disease-specific autoantibodies found in the sera of patients. The aims of this study were to: (1) investigate the role of the MHC and particularly HLA-DP in the production of autoantibodies; (2) investigate clinical associations with autoantibodies. We have performed HLA class II typing using PCR with sequence-specific primers on DNA samples from 202 scleroderma patients and 307 UK control subjects. All patients had well defined clinical phenotypes. Sera from patients were examined for the presence of disease specific autoantibodies in particular the anti-topoisomerase autoantibody (ATA), the anti-centromere autoantibody (ACA) and the anti-RNA polymerase autoantibody (ARA). There was a striking association between HLA-DPB1*1301 and ATA (Pcorr = 0.0001). In addition, ATA was associated with HLA-DRB1*11 and the anticentromere autoantibody (ACA) with HLA-DRB1*04, HLA-DRB1*08 (P = 0.001) and HLA-DQB1 alleles with a glycine residue at position 26. Very strong associations were detected between clinical phenotypes and autoantibodies. ATA was associated with pulmonary fibrosis (P = 0.00002), anti-RNA polymerase autoantibody (ARA) with renal involvement (P = 0.0000006) and diffuse skin disease (P = 0.00001), and ACA with limited skin involvement (P = 0.00002) and protection against pulmonary fibrosis (P = 0.0000003). We have identified a significant association between the ATA and HLA-DPB1*1301 which may provide an insight into how this autoantibody is formed. Patient clinical characteristics depend on the autoantibodies they carry.

Autoantibodies↗

PubMed2001

Human leukocyte antigen-DRB1 position 11 residues are a common protective marker for sarcoidosis.

Genetic factors, in particular human leukocyte antigens (HLAs) are important determinants of susceptibility to sarcoidosis, a chronic granulomatous disease of undetermined etiology. To clarify the role of HLA in sarcoidosis we determined HLA-DR and -DQ alleles in case-control samples from three European populations (United Kingdom, Czech, and Polish) and compared these results with those published for three additional populations (Italian, Japanese, and Scandinavian) to determine whether the HLA-DR and/or -DQ alleles act as ethnic-dependent, or ethnic-independent modifiers of disease risk. Although variations were apparent in the alleles associated with susceptibility, reductions in the frequency of alleles associated with protection were remarkably consistent in the six populations. Previously detected associations between single-nucleotide polymorphisms at the TAP2 locus and sarcoidosis were shown to be due to linkage disequilibrium with the HLA-DR locus. The protective HLA-DR alleles, which encode the DR1 and DR4 antigens, were found to share characteristic small hydrophobic residues at position 11, which were replaced by small hydrophilic residues in the remaining, nonprotective, HLA-DR alleles. This residue position is within a pocket of the HLA-DR complex antigen binding groove (designated P6), where it is the only variable amino acid and therefore determines the peptide binding preferences of this pocket. A highly significant reduction in the frequency of individuals carrying HLA-DR alleles with a hydrophobic residue at position 11 was observed in the sarcoidosis cases in the three populations we examined. This suggests this HLA-DR residue is an important protective marker in sarcoidosis.

ATP Binding Cassette Transporter, Subfamily B, Mem↗

PubMed2000

Mannose-binding lectin promoter and structural gene variants in sarcoidosis.

BACKGROUND: Sarcoidosis is a chronic granulomatous disease of unknown aetiology. Studies have suggested that the causative agent may be an infectious micro-organism. The mannose binding lectin (MBL) is involved in innate immunity to a wide range of micro-organisms. Mutations in the promoter region and exon 1 of the MBL gene occur with high frequency and are associated with reduced serum levels of MBL and increased susceptibility to microbial diseases. This study investigated whether MBL variants predispose to sarcoidosis by increasing their susceptibility to micro-organisms. METHODS: MBL gene promoter and exon 1 variants were detected by sequence specific primer polymerase chain reaction (SSP-PCR) in 167 UK Caucasian sarcoidosis patients and 164 control subjects. Severity of pulmonary disease outcome among patients was assessed by radiography after a minimum of 4 years from disease onset and classified as mild, moderate, and severe disease categories, accordingly. RESULTS: MBL variant frequencies were similar in patients and controls studied. Among sarcoidosis patients, the frequencies of variants were similar regardless of severity of disease outcome. The average patient ages at time of diagnosis were similar for all MBL genotypes. CONCLUSIONS: MBL gene variants do not appear to influence susceptibility to sarcoidosis, age of disease onset, or severity of disease.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2000

Epidemiology of familial sarcoidosis in the UK.

BACKGROUND: The last comprehensive epidemiological studies on familial sarcoidosis in the UK were more than 25 years ago, reporting another affected family member in 1.7% of index cases. A significant proportion of like-sex over unlike-sex pairs, an excess of mother-child over father-child associations, and a preponderance of monozygous over dizygous twins was noted. Another study reported ethnic heterogeneity in familial disease. This study was undertaken to identify the risk ratio (lambda(S)) for siblings of familial sarcoidosis in the UK, to determine if the previous epidemiological findings have persisted, and to reassess whether ethnic heterogeneity prevails in familial disease. METHOD: Questionnaires were sent to 406 index patients. RESULTS: Two hundred and sixty eight replies (66%) were received. Twenty four of the original 406 index patients (5.91%) were found to have at least one other relative (first, second or third degree) with biopsy proven sarcoidosis. A lambda(S) value of 36-73 was calculated indicating significant familial clustering of the disease. Ethnically the families comprised 62.5% Caucasian, 29.2% Afro-Caribbean, and 8.3% Asian. Mean age at diagnosis was 39.8 years for women and 40.9 years for men with a male to female ratio of 1:1.7. This differed for the Asian families in which all the affected members were male. Three sets of female twins (two monozygous and one dizygous) were included. There was an equal distribution of like-sex (primarily female) and unlike-sex families as well as mother-child and father-child pairs. Pulmonary involvement was predominant irrespective of ethnicity, as was the need for corticosteroid treatment. CONCLUSIONS: These results support the theory that a shared determinant (either genetic or environmental) is operating in familial sarcoidosis and suggest that this determinant is similar for all ethnic groups.

Adult↗

PubMed2000

Familial sarcoidosis is linked to the major histocompatibility complex region.

Sarcoidosis is a systemic granulomatous disorder associated with high CD4+ cell activity, but no pathogen is detectable. Clustering in families occurs, and the existence of a genetic predisposition to sarcoidosis is widely accepted. The major histocompatibility complex (MHC) is believed to contribute to this susceptibility. Many studies testing this hypothesis have produced conflicting results. We have genotyped 122 affected siblings from 55 families for seven DNA polymorphisms that flank and cover the MHC region on chromosome 6, and for HLA-DPB1, a candidate gene for granulomatous disorders. Multipoint nonparametric linkage (NPL) analysis showed linkage (NPL score > 2.5; p < 0.006) for the entire MHC region with a maximum NPL score of 3.2 (p = 0.0008) at marker locus D6S1666 in the Class III gene cluster. There was a significant excess of marker haplotype sharing among affected siblings. However, the frequency of HLA-DPB1 alleles on 104 shared chromosomes did not differ from that of a control group of founders from the family panel. Transmission disequilibrium was found for allele DPB1*0201, but only nine families contributed to this result. We conclude that genes of the MHC are involved in the genetic predisposition to sarcoidosis, but HLA-DPB1 alone does not sufficiently explain this fact.

Alleles↗

PubMed1999

Polymorphic analysis of the high-affinity tumor necrosis factor receptor 2.

The tumor necrosis factor receptor 2 (TNF-RII, CD120b, TNF-R p75/80) gene has recently been characterised. It is located on chromosome 1p362 and consists of 10 exons and 9 introns A number of biallelic polymorphisms have been found in exons 4, 6, 9 and 10 based on differences between published sequences. In this study we have used polymerase chain reaction methodology in association with sequence-specific primers (PCR-SSP) incorporating mismatches at the 3' end to identify these polymorphisms. We were able to confirm the presence of a single biallelic polymorphism in exon 6 corresponding to a (T/G) at nucleotide 676 of TNF-RII mRNA (gb:M32315) which results in an amino acid change and three biallelic polymorphisms in exon 10 (in the3'UTR) corresponding to (A/G) at nucleotide 1663, (T/G) at nucleotide 1668 and a (C/T) at nucleotide 1690 of gb:M32315, whereas no polymorphisms were observed in exons 4 and 9. Here we report that in 192 unrelated UK Caucasian individuals the allele frequencies determined by direct counting were: 676-T (0.77), 1663-G (0.51), 1668-T (0.95), and 1690-T (0.64) and the calculated gene frequencies were; 676-T (0.52), 676-G (0.12); 1663-G (0.30), 1663-A (0.28); 1668-T (0.77), 1668-G (0.025); and 1690-T (0.40), 1690-C (0.20). Furthermore, the presence of an A allele at nucleotide position 1663 was found to be strongly associated with the presence of a C allele at nucleotide position 1690 and a G allele at nucleotide position 1668 whereas the presence of a G allele at position 1663 was associated with the absence of a C allele at nucleotide position 1690.

Alleles↗

PubMed1999

T-cell receptor gene usage in patients with fibrosing alveolitis and control subjects.

BACKGROUND: Fibrosing alveolitis is characterized by inflammation, fibrosis and increased numbers of activated CD4+ T-cells in the lower respiratory tract. The aims of this study were to compare the T-cell antigen receptor repertoire in the lungs of subjects with fibrosing alveolitis systemic sclerosis (FASSc) with cryptogenic fibrosing alveolitis (CFA) and normal control subjects, to determine whether FASSc is driven by a specific T-cell trigger and is determined by a T-cell driven immune response, and to assess the clonality of CD4+ and CD8+ TcR usage in subjects with FASSc. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We used reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction with specific V alpha- and V beta-chain primers to identify the TcR gene usage in biopsy material, bronchoalveolar lavage fluid or peripheral blood from our subjects. RESULTS: We found individual-specific restriction of V alpha- and V beta-chain usage in lung biopsies from patients and control subjects. To establish whether this was due to expression bias in the CD4+ or CD8+ T-cells and was restricted to the lung, the alpha beta-T-cell receptor chain usage was assessed in T-cell subsets separated from the lungs of patients with fibrosing alveolitis and was compared with that of the peripheral blood. There was no consistent difference in the expression of any variable family chain among the population studied, although there was a significant difference between lung and peripheral blood lymphocyte V beta-families in CD8+ T-cells (P = 0.0007). CONCLUSION: We conclude that there is individual TcR V alpha- and V beta-expression bias in subjects with fibrosing alveolitis.

Adult↗

PubMed1999

Interaction of HLA phenotype and exposure intensity in sensitization to complex platinum salts.

The development of sensitization to inhaled allergens is determined by the interaction of multiple genetic and environmental influences. Occupational sensitization to low-molecular-weight chemicals allows a specific immunological response to an inhaled hapten to be studied in a well-defined population with characterized exposure. We investigated the workforce of a large platinum refinery exposed to ammonium hexachloroplatinate (ACP) to test the hypothesis that the development of IgE-associated sensitization to ACP was influenced by human leukocyte-associated antigen (HLA) phenotype, especially in those with lower ACP exposure. We performed HLA typing in 44 cases with a positive skin prick test to ACP, and 57 nonsensitized referents matched on age, race, duration of employment, and category of ACP exposure. An HLA-DR3 phenotype was more common among cases (odds ratio [OR] 2.3), and more so in those with low (OR infinite) than with high exposure (OR 1.6); HLA-DR6 was less common among the cases (OR 0.4), an association also stronger in the low-exposure group (OR 0.1 versus 0.5). These results provide evidence that HLA phenotype is a significant determinant of sensitization to complex platinum salts and for the first time show that the strength of this association varies with intensity of exposure to the sensitizing agent. They imply that as exposure-control measures are taken to prevent occupational sensitization and, by analogy, sensitization to allergens outside the workplace, disease incidence will increasingly be determined by genetic susceptibility.

Adult↗

PubMed1999

Analysis of MHC encoded antigen-processing genes TAP1 and TAP2 polymorphisms in sarcoidosis.

Sarcoidosis is a chronic granulomatous disease of unknown etiology. Several studies have suggested involvement of human leukocyte antigen (HLA) genes in sarcoidosis susceptibility. HLA associations described have not been consistent, possibly because of additional susceptibility genes adjacent to or within the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) such as genes for the transporter associated with antigen processing (TAP). The aim of this study was to analyze TAP gene polymorphisms in patients with sarcoidosis using the amplificatory refraction mutation system (ARMS) PCR. To determine whether any association between TAP gene variation and sarcoidosis was ethnic-independent we examined two European populations: 117 unrelated UK Caucasoid patients with sarcoidosis and 290 healthy UK control subjects, and 87 unrelated Polish Slavonic patients with sarcoidosis and 158 healthy Polish control subjects. We detected significant differences in TAP2 between the UK control and patient groups, and in TAP2 between the Polish control and patient groups. Comparing the UK and Polish control groups, we observed a difference in TAP1. Examination of HLA-DPB1 in our UK population showed no associations with disease or between variants at the TAP gene loci and HLA-DPB1 variants. These results suggest associations at the TAP loci occur independently of HLA-DPB1 associations, that TAP associations seen may be involved in determining sarcoidosis susceptibility, and that such susceptibilities differ between UK and Polish populations. This first study of TAP genes in UK and Polish sarcoid populations has demonstrated the importance of using multiple defined ethnic populations in defining the role genetic factors play in sarcoidosis susceptibility and the importance of candidate gene studies.

ATP Binding Cassette Transporter, Subfamily B, Mem↗

PubMed1999

Fibronectin gene polymorphisms associated with fibrosing alveolitis in systemic sclerosis.

Systemic sclerosis (SSc), a multisystem immunologic disease of unknown etiology, is commonly manifested in the lung as fibrosing alveolitis (FASSc). There is evidence to support the role of genetic factors in the predisposition to pulmonary fibrosis in SSc (HLA DR3/DR52a). This association is not complete and other candidate genes are likely involved. Of these, fibronectin is a growth factor known to play a crucial role in lung fibrosis. Our study investigated whether polymorphisms of the fibronectin gene are associated with lung fibrosis in SSc. Using the polymerase chain reaction and the restriction enzymes HaeIII, MspI, HindIII, and TaqI, we assessed the restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLPs) in 161 patients with SSc and 253 healthy control subjects from the United Kingdom. For each restriction enzyme, three genotypes were possible corresponding to the presence of the cutting site on neither, one, or both chromosomes (HaeIII AA, AB, BB; MspI CC, CD, DD; HindIII EE, EF, FF; TaqI GG, GH, HH). There was a significant decrease of genotype BB (FASSc: 17%, control: 34%; Pcorr = 0.006) with a reciprocal increase of genotype AB (FASSc: 62%, control: 46%; Pcorr = 0.022) in FASSc with the HaeIII RFLP. A significant decrease of genotype DD was observed in FASSc (FASSc: 28%, control: 41%; Pcorr = 0.038) with the MspI RFLP. The coassociation of genotypes AB (HaeIII RFLP) and CD (MspI RFLP) was present in 45% of the FASSc group (P = 0.0059), with an increased relative risk of developing fibrosing alveolitis of 1.988. We conclude that genotypes of the fibronectin gene are useful prognostic factors in SSc, helping to predict individuals likely to develop pulmonary fibrosis.

Adult↗

PubMed1998

Comprehensive HLA-DP typing using polymerase chain reaction with sequence-specific primers and 95 sequence-specific primer mixes.

HLA-DP is the third of the class II molecules. Its role is antigen presentation, and it has been suggested to play a part in the susceptibility to certain diseases such as berylliosis, sarcoidosis and juvenile chronic arthritis. The standard typing method is SSO typing, although other methods have been used. Probably the best is sequence-based typing, but this is time-consuming and requires expensive equipment. We describe a method for comprehensive HLA-DPB1 and HLA-DPA1 typing using sequence-specific primers. This method has the advantages that it is rapid - typing a single DNA sample takes under 3 hours - and does not require any special equipment or reagents. The method has been shown to be highly accurate by typing 60 cell line DNA samples in which there was 100% agreement between the types obtained and the published information. Similarly typing of 20 DNA samples previously typed by sequence-based typing gave 100% concordance. We used the method to type DNA samples from 102 UK Caucasoid kidney donors. The allele frequencies agree with previously published data. Linkage disequilibria between HLA-DPB1, HLA-DPA1 and the other class II antigens have been investigated. Strong linkage disequilibria exist between certain HLA-DPB1 and HLA-DPA1 alleles. This is unsurprising in view of their proximity on the chromosome. More unexpectedly, the data also suggest that genes further away along the chromosome are in linkage disequilibrium with HLA-DP, forming extended haplotypes.

DNA Primers↗

PubMed1998

Rapid genotyping of transforming growth factor beta1 gene polymorphisms in a UK Caucasoid control population using the polymerase chain reaction and sequence-specific primers.

Transforming growth factor (TGF) beta1 is a growth factor which has multiple functions including the promotion of matrix deposition during wound healing and scar formation. Gene polymorphisms within or close to the 5' region of TGFbeta1 have been identified; three in the upstream region, one in the non-translated region, two in the signal peptide sequence and one in a region of the gene coding for the precursor protein. We have developed a method using 14 polymerase chain reaction-sequence-specific primer reactions to characterise six of these polymorphisms. In the upstream region, both forward and reverse allele-specific primers were used to demonstrate the cis/trans orientation of alleles at adjacent polymorphisms (haplotypes). We report the allele and genotype frequencies of TGFbeta1 genes in two sets of UK Caucasoid control subjects.

DNA Primers↗

PubMed1997

Diffuse lung disease: product of genetic susceptibility and environmental encounters.

Diffuse (interstitial) lung disease comprises a wide variety of conditions, individually relatively uncommon but collectively being found in approximately 50 per 100,000 population. Some of these diseases are of known aetiology but others are not. It has been suggested that the environment is a major contributory factor in this group of diseases. However, since not all individuals exposed to a common environment develop interstitial diseases, it can be hypothesised that there is a genetic predisposition to their development. These diseases cause major morbidity and mortality due to lung injury and fibrosis. It follows that, if individuals who are genetically predisposed to develop diseases characterised by lung injury and fibrosis can be identified, then management strategies can be designed which will attempt to identify and treat early disease and, in the longer term, to develop targeted genetic interventional approaches to treatment.

Adult↗

PubMed1997

Transforming growth factors-beta 1, -beta 2, and -beta 3 stimulate fibroblast procollagen production in vitro but are differentially expressed during bleomycin-induced lung fibrosis.

Transforming growth factor (TGF)-beta 1 may potentiate wound healing and fibrosis by stimulating fibroblast collagen deposition. TGF-beta 1 is implicated in the pathogenesis of pulmonary fibrosis, but the role of TGF-beta 2 and TGF-beta 3 remains unclear. We examined their effects on lung fibroblast procollagen metabolism in vitro and localized their gene expression during bleomycin-induced lung fibrosis using in situ hybridization with digoxigenin-labeled riboprobes. All three isoforms stimulated fibroblast procollagen production. TGF-beta 3 was the most potent and also reduced procollagen degradation. In normal mouse lung, TGF-beta 1 and TGF-beta 3 mRNA transcripts were abundant in bronchiolar epithelium. After bleomycin, TGF-beta 1 gene expression was maximally enhanced at 10 days, with the signal being predominant in macrophages. Signal was also enhanced in mesenchymal, pulmonary endothelial, and mesothelial cells. After 35 days, the pattern of TGF-beta 1 gene expression returned to that of control lung. TGF-beta 3 gene expression remained unchanged throughout compared with controls. TGF-beta 2 mRNA was not detected with the antisense probe, but signal obtained with the sense probe suggests the presence of a naturally occurring antisense. This study demonstrates that TGF-beta 1, -beta 2, and -beta 3 all exert profibrotic effects in vitro. However, TGF-beta isoform gene expression is differentially controlled during experimental pulmonary fibrosis with TGF-beta 1 the predominant isoform expressed during pathogenesis.

Animals↗

PubMed1997

Interstitial lung disease: basic mechanisms and genetic predisposition.

Diffuse (interstitial) lung disease comprises a wide variety of relatively uncommon conditions, which present with characteristic clusters of clinical features and often with aberrant lung function. These diseases cause major morbidity and mortality due to lung injury and fibrosis. Some of these diseases are of known aetiology, whereas others are not. It has been suggested that the environment is a major contributing factor in this group of diseases. However, since not all individuals exposed to a common environment develop interstitial diseases, we can hypothesize that there is a genetic predisposition to their development. Therefore, if we can identify individuals who are genetically predisposed to develop diseases characterized by lung injury and fibrosis, then management strategies can be designed which will attempt to identify early disease and, in the longer term, to develop targeted genetic interventional approaches to treatment.

Female↗