Biomedical subjects

P D Neufer

Publications and source records attributed to P D Neufer.

At least 19 recordsLinked to original sources

PubMed2001

Transcriptional activation of the IL-6 gene in human contracting skeletal muscle: influence of muscle glycogen content.

In humans, the plasma interleukin 6 (IL-6) concentration increases dramatically during low-intensity exercise. Measurements across the working limb indicate that skeletal muscle is the source of IL-6 production. To determine whether energy availability influences the regulation of IL-6 expression during prolonged exercise, six male subjects completed two trials consisting of 180 min of two-legged dynamic knee extensor with either normal or low (~60% of control) pre-exercise muscle glycogen levels. Increases in plasma IL-6 during exercise were significantly higher (P<0.05) in the low-glycogen (16-fold) trial verses the control (10-fold) trial. Transcriptional activation of the IL-6 gene in skeletal muscle was also higher in the low-glycogen trial; it increased by about 40-fold after 90 min of exercise and about 60-fold after 180 min of exercise. Muscle IL-6 mRNA followed a similar but delayed pattern, increasing by more than 100-fold in the low-glycogen trial and by about 30-fold in the control trial. These data demonstrate that exercise activates transcription of the IL-6 gene in working skeletal muscle, a response that is dramatically enhanced when glycogen levels are low. These findings also support the hypothesis that IL-6 may be produced by contracting myofibers when glycogen levels become critically low as a means of signaling the liver to increase glucose production.

Exercise↗

PubMed2000

Exercise attenuates the fasting-induced transcriptional activation of metabolic genes in skeletal muscle.

Fasting elicits a progressive increase in lipid metabolism within skeletal muscle. To determine the effects of fasting on the transcriptional regulation of genes important for metabolic control in skeletal muscle composed of different fiber types, nuclei from control and fasted (24 and 72 h) rats were subjected to nuclear run-on analysis using an RT-PCR-based technique. Fasting increased (P < 0.05) transcription rate of the muscle-specific uncoupling protein-3 gene (UCP3) 14.3- to 21.1-fold in white gastrocnemius (WG; fast-twitch glycolytic) and 5.5- to 7.5-fold in red gastrocnemius (RG; fast-twitch oxidative) and plantaris (PL; mixed) muscles. No change occurred in soleus (slow-twitch oxidative) muscle. Fasting also increased transcription rate of the lipoprotein lipase (LPL), muscle carnitine palmitoyltransferase I (CPT I), and long-chain acyl-CoA dehydrogenase (LCAD) genes 1.7- to 3.7-fold in WG, RG, and PL muscles. Transcription rate responses were similar after 24 and 72 h of fasting. Surprisingly, increasing metabolic demand during the initial 8 h of starvation (two 2-h bouts of treadmill running) attenuated the 24-h fasting-induced transcriptional activation of UCP3, LPL, CPT I, and LCAD in RG and PL muscles, suggesting the presence of opposing regulatory mechanisms. These data demonstrate that fasting elicits a fiber type-specific coordinate increase in the transcription rate of several genes involved in and/or required for lipid metabolism and indicate that exercise may attenuate the fasting-induced transcriptional activation of specific metabolic genes.

Animals↗

PubMed2000

Transcriptional regulation of gene expression in human skeletal muscle during recovery from exercise.

Exercise training elicits a number of adaptive changes in skeletal muscle that result in an improved metabolic efficiency. The molecular mechanisms mediating the cellular adaptations to exercise training in human skeletal muscle are unknown. To test the hypothesis that recovery from exercise is associated with transcriptional activation of specific genes, six untrained male subjects completed 60-90 min of exhaustive one-legged knee extensor exercise for five consecutive days. On day 5, nuclei were isolated from biopsies of the vastus lateralis muscle of the untrained and the trained leg before exercise and from the trained leg immediately after exercise and after 15 min, 1 h, 2 h, and 4 h of recovery. Transcriptional activity of the uncoupling protein 3 (UCP3), pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase 4 (PDK4), and heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) genes (relative to beta-actin) increased by three- to sevenfold in response to exercise, peaking after 1-2 h of recovery. Increases in mRNA levels followed changes in transcription, peaking between 2 and 4 h after exercise. Lipoprotein lipase and carnitine pamitoyltransferase I gene transcription and mRNA levels showed similar but less dramatic induction patterns, with increases ranging from two- to threefold. In a separate study, a single 4-h bout of cycling exercise (n = 4) elicited from 5 to >20-fold increases in UCP3, PDK4, and HO-1 transcription, suggesting that activation of these genes may be related to the duration or intensity of exercise. These data demonstrate that exercise induces transient increases in transcription of metabolic genes in human skeletal muscle. Moreover, the findings suggest that the cumulative effects of transient increases in transcription during recovery from consecutive bouts of exercise may represent the underlying kinetic basis for the cellular adaptations associated with exercise training.

Actins↗

PubMed2000

Chronic contractile activity upregulates the proteasome system in rabbit skeletal muscle.

Remodeling of skeletal muscle in response to altered patterns of contractile activity is achieved, in part, by the regulated degradation of cellular proteins. The ubiquitin-proteasome system is a dominant pathway for protein degradation in eukaryotic cells. To test the role of this pathway in contraction-induced remodeling of skeletal muscle, we used a well-established model of continuous motor nerve stimulation to activate tibialis anterior (TA) muscles of New Zealand White rabbits for periods up to 28 days. Western blot analysis revealed marked and coordinated increases in protein levels of the 20S proteasome and two of its regulatory proteins, PA700 and PA28. mRNA of a representative proteasome subunit also increased coordinately in contracting muscles. Chronic contractile activity of TA also increased total proteasome activity in extracts, as measured by the hydrolysis of a proteasome-specific peptide substrate, and the total capacity of the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway, as measured by the ATP-dependent hydrolysis of an exogenous protein substrate. These results support the potential role of the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway of protein degradation in the contraction-induced remodeling of skeletal muscle.

Animals↗

PubMed1998

Transient regulation of c-fos, alpha B-crystallin, and hsp70 in muscle during recovery from contractile activity.

Endurance exercise training increases the oxidative capacity of skeletal muscles, reflecting the induction of genes encoding enzymes of intermediary metabolism. To test the hypothesis that changes in gene expression may be triggered specifically during recovery from contractile activity, we quantified c-fos, alpha B-crystallin, 70-kDa heat shock protein (hsp70), myoglobin, and citrate synthase RNA in rabbit tibialis anterior muscle during recovery from intermittent (8 h/day), low-frequency (10 Hz) motor nerve stimulation. Recovery from a single 8-h bout of stimulation was characterized by large (> 10-fold) transient increases in c-fos, alpha B-crystallin, and hsp70 mRNA. Similar changes were noted during recovery after 7 or 14 days of stimulation (8 h/day). Myoglobin and citrate synthase mRNA were also induced during recovery, but the changes were of lesser magnitude (2- to 2.5-fold) and were observed only following repeated bouts of muscle activity (7th or 14th day) that promoted sustained (> 24 h) increases in these transcripts. These findings indicate that recovery from exercise is associated with specific transient changes in the expression of immediate early and stress protein genes, suggesting that the products of these genes may have specific roles in the remodeling process evoked by repeated bouts of contractile activity.

Adaptation, Physiological↗

PubMed1996

Differential expression of B-crystallin and Hsp27 in skeletal muscle during continuous contractile activity. Relationship to myogenic regulatory factors.

AlphaB-crystallin (alphaBC) is a major structural protein (22 kDa) of the ocular lens as well as a bona fide heat shock protein in non-lens tissue. The alphaBC gene is abundantly expressed in tissues with high oxidative capacity, including the heart and type I skeletal muscle fibers, and is regulated by the MyoD family of basic helix-loop-helix transcription factors during myogenesis. To test the hypothesis that alphaBC expression may be directly regulated by the demand for oxidative metabolism, we examined the expression of alphaBC and the ancestral-related Hsp27 in rabbit tibialis anterior muscle subjected to continuous low frequency motor nerve stimulation (3 V, 10 Hz). alphaBC mRNA and protein increased within the 1st day of continuous contractile activity (5- and 2.5-fold, respectively) and achieved maximum levels (>20-and 4-fold, respectively) after 21 d of stimulation. Hsp27 mRNA and protein levels also increased with stimulation, but with a less specific and dramatic induction pattern. In agreement with the Northern analysis, in situ hybridization performed on cross sections from tibialis anterior muscle revealed progressively increasing alphaBC transcript signal, localized in a ringlet pattern, from 1 through 21 days of stimulation. Serial sections subjected to myosin immunohistochemistry revealed that alphaBC expression was confined to slow-twitch type I and a subpopulation of fast twitch type II fibers after 1 day but present in nearly all fibers after 21 days of stimulation. Transcript levels of all four myogenic regulatory factors (MyoD, myogenin, myf-5, and MRF4) also increased with stimulation in a pattern temporally similar with alphaBC, suggesting that expression of alphaBC in response to stimulation may, in part, be regulated through myogenic regulatory factor(s) interaction with the canonical E-box element located within the alphaBC promotor. These data demonstrate that expression of the small heat shock protein, alphaBC, is rapidly induced independent of the ancestrally related Hsp27 in a fiber type specific pattern in skeletal muscle subjected to the oxidative stress imposed by continuous contractile activity.

Animals↗

PubMed1996

Postnatal development and plasticity of specialized muscle fiber characteristics in the hindlimb.

Recent progress in defining molecular components of pathways controlling early stages of myogenesis has been substantial, but regulatory factors that govern the striking functional specialization of adult skeletal muscle fibers in vertebrate organisms have not yet been identified. A more detailed understanding of the temporal and spatial patterns by which specialized fiber characteristics arise may provide clues to the identity of the relevant regulatory factors. In this study, we used immunohistochemical, in situ hybridization, and Northern blot analyses to examine the time course and spatial characteristics of expression of myoglobin protein and mRNA during development of the distal hindlimb in the mouse. In adult animals, myoglobin is expressed selectively in oxidative, mitochondria-rich, fatigue-resistant myofibers, and it provides a convenient marker for this particular subset of specialized fibers. We observed only minimal expression of myoglobin in the hindlimb prior to the second day after birth, but a rapid and large (50-fold) induction of this gene in the ensuing neonatal period. Myoglobin expression was limited, however, to fibers located centrally within the limb which coexpress myosin isoforms characteristic of type I, IIA, and IIX fibers. This induction of myoglobin expression within the early postnatal period was accompanied by increased expression of nuclear genes encoding mitochondrial proteins, and exhibited a time course similar to the upregulation of myoglobin and mitochondrial proteins, and exhibited a time course similar to the upregulation of myoglobin and mitochondrial protein expression that can be induced in adult muscle fibers by continuous motor nerve stimulation. This comparison suggests that progressive locomotor activity of neonatal animals may provide signals which trigger the development of the specialized features of oxidative, fatigue-resistant skeletal muscle fibers.

Animals↗

PubMed1996

Continuous contractile activity induces fiber type specific expression of HSP70 in skeletal muscle.

Continuous contractile activity of skeletal muscle elicits an early and dramatic increase in ribosomal RNA, suggesting that translational efficiency and/or capacity is enhanced during the adaptive response to increased metabolic demand. In view of the important role heat shock or stress proteins (HSPs) play as molecular chaperones during protein synthesis, we examined whether expression of the inducible 70-kDa HSP (HSP70) and/or mitochondrial 60-kDa HSP (HSP60) is altered in rabbit tibialis anterior muscle during continuous low-frequency motor nerve stimulation. Induction of the HSP70 gene was evident within 24 h after the onset of stimulation as reflected by increases in HSP70 transcription (> 20-fold) and mRNA (> 50-fold). HSP70 protein levels were significantly elevated (10- to 12-fold) after 14 and 21 days of stimulation. Mitochondrial HSP60 mRNA and protein also increased during stimulation (> 18- and > 5-fold after 21 days, respectively). In situ hybridization and immunohistochemistry coupled with myosin ATPase staining revealed that expression of HSP70 was restricted to oxidative type I and IIa fibers during the first 3 days of stimulation but shifted to primarily type II fibers after 21 days of stimulation. These findings demonstrate that induction of HSP70 during the adaptive response to chronic motor nerve stimulation proceeds from type I/IIa to type IId(x)/b fibers, suggesting that the expression of HSPs may be required to support the folding and compartmentalization of nascent proteins during the transformation process.

Animals↗

PubMed1995

Nuclear responses to depletion of mitochondrial DNA in human cells.

The derivation of human cell lines devoid of mitochondrial (mt) DNA (rho 0) provides an opportunity to study nuclear responses to a chronic impairment of mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation. Expression of several nuclear genes is induced in human rho 0 cells, including those encoding integral proteins of the mitochondrial inner membrane, intermediate filaments, and ribosomes. In contrast to conditions in which mitochondrial respiration is altered acutely, expression of heat shock proteins and immediate early genes is not induced. Mitochondria from rho 0 cells maintain a transmembrane electrochemical potential and are distributed within the cytoplasm of these cells in a manner indistinguishable from that of wild-type cells. We conclude that a chronic deficiency of mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation produced by elimination of mtDNA is associated with a different pattern of gene induction than that provoked by other acute or subacute conditions that impair mitochondrial respiration or create energy demands in excess of mitochondrial respiratory capacity.

Base Sequence↗

PubMed1995

Hindlimb perfusion induces GLUT-1 and immediate early gene expression in skeletal muscle.

The purpose of the present study was to test the suitability of the rat hindlimb perfusion technique for studying the acute regulation of the GLUT-1 and GLUT-4 glucose transporter genes in adult skeletal muscle. To further examine the stability of the technique, we also monitored the transcription rate and mRNA content of selected immediate early genes. Nuclei and total RNA were isolated from red and white hindlimb muscle from perfused (2 h) and nonperfused control animals. Although GLUT-4 transcription and mRNA content remained stable, perfusion elicited a marked 3.5-fold increase in GLUT-1 mRNA in red and 2.2-fold increase in white skeletal muscle in the absence of any detectable change in transcription. In contrast to both GLUT-1 and GLUT-4, transcription originating from the c-fos and c-myc immediate early genes increased from 2.0- to 2.7-fold with perfusion in both red and white skeletal muscle, whereas transcription of the beta-actin gene decreased by 40-60%. Both c-fos and c-myc mRNA levels also increased with perfusion, whereas beta-actin mRNA remained unchanged. These findings clearly demonstrate that the current method of performing the hindlimb perfusion technique rapidly and dramatically alters the regulation of selected genes in skeletal muscle.

Animals↗

PubMed1994

Transcriptional regulation of muscle fatty acid-binding protein.

Heart fatty acid-binding protein (H-FABP) is present in a wide variety of tissues but is found in the highest concentration in cardiac and red skeletal muscle. It has been proposed that the expression of H-FABP correlates directly with the fatty acid-oxidative capacity of the tissue. In the present study, the expression of H-FABP was measured in red and white skeletal muscle under two conditions in which fatty acid utilization is known to be increased: streptozotocin-induced diabetes and fasting. Protein concentration, mRNA concentration and transcription rate were measured under both conditions. The level of both protein and mRNA increased approximately 2-fold under each condition. The transcription rate was higher in red skeletal muscle than in white muscle, was increased 2-fold during fasting, but was unchanged by streptozotocin-induced diabetes. In addition to supporting the hypothesis that H-FABP is induced during conditions of increased fatty acid utilization, these findings demonstrate that the regulation of H-FABP expression may or may not be at the level of transcription depending on the stimulus.

Animals↗

PubMed1993

Transcriptional regulation of the gene for glucose transporter GLUT4 in skeletal muscle. Effects of diabetes and fasting.

GLUT4 glucose transporter protein and mRNA levels in rat skeletal muscle are decreased with streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetes and increased by fasting, indicating that GLUT4 expression may be regulated at the pretranslational level. The purpose of the present study was to determine whether GLUT4 is subject to transcriptional regulation in skeletal muscle under the altered metabolic conditions of diabetes and fasting. Nuclei were isolated from red and white portions of the quadriceps and gastrocnemius/plantaris muscles of control, 7-day STZ-diabetic, and 3-day fasted rats. STZ-induced diabetes resulted in a 35% reduction in GLUT4 transcription in red skeletal muscle and thus accounted for a major portion of the corresponding 50% reduction in GLUT4 mRNA observed in red skeletal muscle. STZ-induced diabetes had no significant effect on GLUT4 transcription or mRNA in white skeletal muscle. Fasting, however, significantly increased both GLUT4 transcription (2.2-fold) and mRNA (2.9-fold) in white skeletal muscle with no change detected for either parameter in red skeletal muscle. The nearly 2-fold higher steady-state GLUT4 mRNA in red versus white skeletal muscle of control rats was not associated with any difference in basal transcription. These findings demonstrate that expression of the GLUT4 glucose transporter protein in skeletal muscle is subject to regulation in vivo at the level of transcription of the GLUT4 gene. In addition, GLUT4 transcription is regulated in a fiber type-specific manner in response to the metabolic challenges elicited by STZ-induced diabetes and fasting.

Animals↗

PubMed1993

Exercise induces a transient increase in transcription of the GLUT-4 gene in skeletal muscle.

Endurance exercise training elicits an increase in mitochondrial density as well as GLUT-4 glucose transporter protein content in skeletal muscle. Corresponding increases in mRNA for respiratory enzymes and GLUT-4 indicate that pretranslational control mechanisms are involved in this adaptive process. To directly test whether transcription of the GLUT-4 gene is activated in response to exercise training, nuclei were isolated from red hindlimb skeletal muscle of rats after 1 wk of exercise training (8% grade, 32 m/min, 40 min, twice/day). Rats were killed either 30 min, 3 h, or 24 h after the last training session. GLUT-4 transcription, determined by nuclear run-on analysis, was unaltered after 30 min, increased by 1.8-fold after 3 h, but was no longer different from controls 24 h after exercise. A similar transient increase in GLUT-4 transcription was evident, but less pronounced (1.4-fold), in untrained rats after a single bout of exercise, suggesting that the postexercise induction in GLUT-4 gene transcription is enhanced by exercise training. GLUT-4 protein content was increased 1.7-fold after 1 wk of training in the absence of any corresponding change in GLUT-4 mRNA, providing evidence that the initial increase in GLUT-4 expression involves translational and/or posttranslational control mechanisms. These findings demonstrate that muscle GLUT-4 expression in response to exercise training is subject to both transcriptional and posttranscriptional regulation. We propose that the increase in GLUT-4 mRNA evident with extended periods of training may result from a shift to pretranslational control and is the cumulative effect of repeated postexercise transient increases in GLUT-4 gene transcription.

Analysis of Variance↗

PubMed1993

Effects of muscle activity and fiber composition on glucose transport and GLUT-4.

We examined glucose uptake and GLUT-4 in rat muscles [soleus (Sol), plantaris (PL), extensor digitorum longus (EDL), tibialis anterior, and the red and white gastrocnemius (WG)]. In the normally innervated perfused rat hindlimb muscles the proportion of oxidative fibers was highly correlated with the muscle's insulin-stimulated 3-O-methyl-D-glucose (3-MG) uptake (R2 = 0.78) and GLUT-4 content (r = 0.94). Insulin-stimulated 3-MG uptake and GLUT-4 were also highly correlated (R2 = 0.996). In 3-day denervated muscles, insulin-stimulated 3-MG uptake was reduced in all six muscles (-41 to -14.6%, P < 0.05), and GLUT-4 content was also reduced (-87.5 to -34.9%), except in the WG and EDL (P > 0.05). A very high correlation was observed between the decrements in GLUT-4 (%) and the decrements in 3-MG uptake (%; r = 0.99). The relatively greater loss in muscle activity (%) due to denervation in the Sol compared with the PL coincided with the reductions (%) in GLUT-4 and 3-MG uptake. These studies demonstrate that glucose uptake and GLUT-4 are regulated by insulin-independent means, namely the oxidative capacity of the muscle and the normal activity level of the muscle.

3-O-Methylglucose↗

PubMed1993

Training cessation does not alter GLUT-4 protein levels in human skeletal muscle.

The purpose of this study was to determine whether short-term training cessation resulted in reduced GLUT-4 protein levels. Endurance- (n = 12, ET) and strength-trained (n = 12) individuals (ST) were examined before and after 14 days of training withdrawal. GLUT-4 content was determined from muscle biopsy samples of the gastrocnemius in ET and the vastus lateralis in ST. Insulin sensitivity (oral glucose tolerance test) was significantly (P < 0.05) reduced in ET and ST with training cessation. GLUT-4 content was unaltered (P > 0.05) in both groups (92 and 100% of trained values for ET and ST, respectively). In ET, citrate synthase activity decreased significantly (P < 0.05) with training withdrawal (41.0 +/- 3.6 vs. 30.6 +/- 2.8 mumol.g-1.min-1); in ST no change was evident. The decrement in insulin sensitivity with the cessation of endurance- or resistance-oriented activity is therefore not associated with a reduction in GLUT-4 protein content. Muscle oxidative capacity and GLUT-4 content do not coincide with the removal of endurance training.

Adult↗

PubMed1993

Role of thermal factors on aerobic capacity improvements with endurance training.

This investigation studied the importance of the rise in body temperature during exercise for aerobic capacity adaptations produced by endurance training. The approach used was to compare training effects produced by subjects exercising in hot (35 degrees C) water vs. cold (20 degrees C) water. Hot water was used to potentiate, and cold water to blunt, the rise in body temperature during exercise. Eighteen young men trained by cycle-ergometer exercise at 60% of maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) while immersed to the neck in either hot (HWT, n = 9) or cold (CWT, n = 9) water for 60 min, 5 days/wk, for 8 wk. Before and after training, VO2max, erythrocyte volume, plasma volume, and vastus lateralis citrate synthase activity were measured. Training increased (P < 0.01) VO2max by 13%, with no difference between HWT and CWT in the magnitude of the effect. Erythrocyte volume increased 4% (P < 0.01) with training, with no difference between HWT and CWT in the magnitude of the effect. Plasma volume remained unchanged by training in both the HWT and CWT groups. Last, vastus lateralis citrate synthase activity increased by 38% with training, but there was no difference between HWT and CWT in the training effect. Thus, exercise-induced body temperature elevations are not an important stimulus for the aerobic adaptations to moderate-intensity endurance training.

Adaptation, Physiological↗

PubMed1992

Effect of training and detraining on skeletal muscle glucose transporter (GLUT4) content in rats.

The aim of the present study was to examine the effects of treadmill exercise training and detraining on the skeletal muscle fiber type specific expression of the insulin-regulated glucose transporter protein (GLUT4) in rats. GLUT4 protein content was determined by Western and dot-blot analysis, using a polyclonal antibody raised against the carboxy-terminal peptide. Rats were sacrificed 24 h after the last training session. There were no significant changes in muscle GLUT4 after 1 day or 1 week of training. Six weeks of training increased GLUT4 protein content 1.4- to 1.7-fold (p < 0.05) over controls in the soleus and red vastus lateralis, whereas no significant change was evident in the white vastus lateralis muscle. GLUT4 protein content in both soleus and red vastus lateralis muscle returned to near control values after 7 days of detraining. Similar to GLUT4, citrate synthase activity showed no change after 1 day or 1 week of training, increased 1.8-fold over controls after 6 weeks of training, but returned to control values after 7 days detraining. These findings demonstrate that muscle GLUT4 protein is increased in rats with as little as 6 weeks of treadmill exercise training but that the adaptation is lost within 1 week of detraining. It is suggested that expression of the GLUT4 protein is coordinated with the well-documented adaptations in oxidative enzyme activity with endurance training and detraining.

Animals↗

PubMed1992

Human tolerance to heat strain during exercise: influence of hydration.

This study determined whether 1) exhaustion from heat strain occurs at the same body temperatures during exercise in the heat when subjects are euhydrated as when they are hypohydrated, 2) aerobic fitness influences the body temperature at which exhaustion from heat strain occurs, and 3) curves could be developed to estimate exhaustion rates at a given level of physiological strain. Seventeen heat-acclimated men [maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) from 45 to 65 ml.kg-1.min-1] attempted two heat stress tests (HSTs): one when euhydrated and one when hypohydrated by 8% of total body water. The HSTs consisted of 180 min of rest and treadmill walking (45% VO2max) in a hot-dry (ambient temperature 49 degrees C, relative humidity 20%) environment. The required evaporative cooling (Ereq) exceeded the maximal evaporative cooling capacity of the environment (Emax); thus thermal equilibrium could not be achieved and 27 of 34 HSTs ended by exhaustion from heat strain. Our findings concerning exhaustion from heat strain are 1) hypohydration reduced the core temperature that could be tolerated; 2) aerobic fitness, per se, did not influence the magnitude of heat strain that could be tolerated; 3) curves can be developed to estimate exhaustion rates for a given level of physiological strain; and 4) exhaustion was rarely associated with a core temperature up to 38 degrees C, and it always occurred before a temperature of 40 degrees C was achieved. These findings are applicable to heat-acclimated individuals performing moderate-intensity exercise under conditions where Ereq approximates or exceeds Emax and who have high skin temperatures.

Adult↗