Biomedical subjects

R Reichelt

Publications and source records attributed to R Reichelt.

At least 19 recordsLinked to original sources

PubMed2003

Characterization of the cutting edge of glass and diamond knives for ultramicrotomy by scanning force microscopy using cantilevers with a defined tip geometry. Part II.

The cutting edge of glass as well as diamond knives was studied at high resolution using a scanning force microscope (SFM). The local shape of the cutting edge was estimated from single line profiles of the SFM topographs taking into account the exact shape of the probing tip estimated by a high-resolution field emission scanning electron microscope (FESEM). The glass knives were prepared by 'balanced breaking'. The radius of the investigated cutting edges was found to be 3.2-4.4 nm and 4.3-6.0 nm for the 35 degrees and 45 degrees diamond knife, respectively, and 3.4-4.3 nm for the glass knives. Besides the opening angle and the cutting edge radius, the friction of a knife during sectioning represents a significant factor influencing the quality of sections. Thus, the roughness of both the diamond clearance angle side and the back side was characterized as well. Corresponding RMS values of the roughness were found to be smaller on the back side (approximately 0.14 nm) than on the clearance angle side (approximately 0.26 nm).

Diamond↗

PubMed2002

Fluorescence light microscopy of pulmonary surfactant at the air-water interface of an air bubble of adjustable size.

The structural dynamics of pulmonary surfactant was studied by epifluorescence light microscopy at the air-water interface of a bubble as a model close to nature for an alveolus. Small unilamellar vesicles of dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine, dipalmitoylphosphatidylglycerol, a small amount of a fluorescent dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine-analog, and surfactant-associated protein C were injected into the buffer solution. They aggregated to large clusters in the presence of Ca(2+) and adsorbed from these units to the interface. This gave rise to an interfacial film that eventually became fully condensed with dark, polygonal domains in a fluorescent matrix. When now the bubble size was increased or decreased, respectively, the film expanded or contracted. Upon expansion of the bubble, the dark areas became larger to the debit of the bright matrix and reversed upon contraction. We were able to observe single domains during the whole process. The film remained condensed, even when the interface was increased to twice its original size. From comparison with scanning force microscopy directly at the air-water interface, the fluorescent areas proved to be lipid bilayers associated with the (dark) monolayer. In the lung, such multilayer phase acts as a reservoir that guarantees a full molecular coverage of the alveolar interface during the breathing cycle and provides mechanical stability to the film.

Adsorption↗

PubMed2002

Scanning force microscopy at the air-water interface of an air bubble coated with pulmonary surfactant.

To study the structure-function relationship of pulmonary surfactant under conditions close to nature, molecular films of a model system consisting of dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine, dipalmitoylphosphatidylglycerol, and surfactant-associated protein C were prepared at the air-water interface of air bubbles about the size of human alveoli (diameter of 100 microm). The high mechanical stability as well as the absence of substantial film flow, inherent to small air bubbles, allowed for scanning force microscopy (SFM) directly at the air-water interface. The SFM topographical structure was correlated to the local distribution of fluorescent-labeled dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine, as revealed from fluorescence light microscopy of the same bubbles. Although SFM has proven before to be exceptionally well suited to probe the structure of molecular films of pulmonary surfactant, the films so far had to be transferred onto a solid support from the air-water interface of a film balance, where they had been formed. This made them prone to artifacts imposed by the transfer. Moreover, the supported monolayers disallowed the direct observation of the structural dynamics associated with expansion and compression of the films as upon breathing. The current findings are compared in this respect to our earlier findings from films, transferred onto a solid support.

1,2-Dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine↗

PubMed2001

Release of allergen-bearing cytoplasm from hydrated pollen: a mechanism common to a variety of grass (Poaceae) species revealed by electron microscopy.

BACKGROUND: The release of submicronic particles from grass pollen after rainfall was suggested to be responsible for outbreaks of grass pollen asthma. Recently, we provided evidence for the release of respirable allergen-bearing particles from hydrated ryegrass (Lolium perenne ) pollen as a possible explanation for this phenomenon. OBJECTIVE: We investigated whether water-induced release of respirable allergen-bearing particles could be a mechanism common to several members of the sweet grass family Poaceae (Gramineae). METHODS: Pollens from 6 different Poaceae species were hydrated in water and examined by means of scanning electron microscopy for release of cytoplasmic materials. Rabbit antisera raised against purified recombinant group 1 and 5 allergens were used for immunogold labeling of expelled materials by means of field emission scanning electron microscopy. In addition, group 1 and 5 allergens were immunogold-localized on ultrathin sections. RESULTS: Fresh Poaceae pollens expelled cytoplasmic materials containing group 1 and 5 allergens on hydration in water. Expulsion of submicronic particles strongly decreased after 1 month of storage. CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest expulsion of cytoplasm after hydration as a mechanism common to pollens of important allergenic grasses. The water-induced release of respirable allergen-bearing particles from grass pollens might explain asthma attacks observed after rainfall during the grass pollen season.

Allergens↗

PubMed2001

Characterization of the 5alpha-reductase-3alpha-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase complex in the human brain.

Although androgen metabolism in the human brain was discovered almost 30 yr ago, conclusive studies on the enzymes involved are still lacking. We therefore investigated 5alpha-reductase and colocalized 3alpha-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (3alpha-HSD) activity in cerebral neocortex (CX) and subcortical white matter (SC) specimens neurosurgically removed from 44 patients suffering from epilepsy. We could demonstrate the presence of the 5alpha-reductase-3alpha-HSD complex in the biopsies of all patients under investigation. Inhibition experiments with specific inhibitors for 5alpha-reductase type 1 and type 2 revealed strong evidence for the exclusive activity of the type 1 isoform. We detected a significantly higher 5alpha-reductase activity in CX than in SC (P< 0.0001), but no sex-specific differences were observed. Furthermore, we found that, in contrast to liver, only 3alpha-HSD type 2 messenger RNA is expressed in the brain and that its expression is significantly higher in SC than in CX without sex-specific differences. The present study is the first to systematically characterize the 5alpha-reductase-3alpha-HSD complex in the human brain. The lack of sex-specific differences and also the colocalization of both enzymes at all life stages suggest a more general purpose of the complex, e.g. the synthesis of neuroactive steroids or the catabolism of neurotoxic steroids, rather than control of reproductive functions.

3-Hydroxysteroid Dehydrogenases↗

PubMed2000

Effect of pretreatment of rubber material on its biodegradability by various rubber degrading bacteria.

The effect of pretreatment of several cis-1,4-polyisoprene containing rubbers on their biodegradability was examined. Tests were carried out with six recently isolated and characterized rubber degrading bacteria belonging to the genera Gordonia (strains Kb2, Kd2 and VH2), Mycobacterium, Micromonospora and Pseudomonas. All strains were able to use natural rubber (NR) as well as NR latex gloves as sole carbon source. Extraction of NR latex gloves by organic solvents resulted in an enhancement of growth for three of the selected strains. On the other hand, growth of Gordonia sp. (strain Kb2 and Kd2), Mycobacterium fortuitum NF4 and Micromonospora aurantiaca W2b on synthetic cis-1,4-polyisoprene did only occur after removal of the antioxidants, that are usually added during manufacture to prevent aging of the materials. Detailed degradation studies performed with Gordonia sp. Kb2 revealed an enhanced mineralization of pretreated NR latex gloves and mineralization of purified natural rubber (NR), indicating the actual mineralization of cis-1,4-polyisoprene rubber constituent even after removal of non-rubber constituent that may act as co-metabolic substrate and support microbial growth. Further analysis by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) clearly demonstrated the enhanced colonization efficiency of these bacteria towards pretreated NR latex gloves. Colonization was additionally visualized by staining of overgrown NR latex gloves with Schiff's reagent, and the purple color produced in the area of degradation was an evidence for the accumulation of aldehydes containing oligomers. Further enhancement of latex gloves degradation could be achieved after successive replacement of mineral salts medium during cultivation. Thereby, a rapid disintegration of untreated NR latex gloves material was accomplished by Gordonia sp. strain VH2.

Actinomycetales↗

PubMed2000

A gram-negative bacterium, identified as Pseudomonas aeruginosa AL98, is a potent degrader of natural rubber and synthetic cis-1, 4-polyisoprene.

A Gram-negative bacterium, strain AL98, was isolated from foul water inside of a deteriorated car tire on a farmer's field in Münster, Germany. The strain was able to considerably disintegrate natural rubber (NR), either in the raw state as NR latex concentrate or in the vulcanized state as NR latex glove, as well as raw synthetic cis-1,4-polyisoprene (IR). Determination of carbon dioxide evolution and living cell number during batch cultivation with each of the materials as sole source of carbon, revealed mineralization of the rubber polymer during biomass increase. Surface investigation by scanning electron microscopy gave evidence for an adhesive growth behavior of the strain proceeding by colonizing the rubber surface, merging into the rubber and forming a biofilm prior to disintegration of the material. Schiff's reagent staining performed with NR latex gloves indicated production and accumulation of aldehyde groups during colonization. The solid glove substrate disappeared completely after a prolonged cultivation period as a result of continuous degradation. Taxonomic analyses of the strain, which were also based on similarity examination of the complete 16S rRNA gene, revealed classification of strain AL98 as a strain of Pseudomonas aeruginosa. This is the first report about the isolation of a Gram-negative bacterium exhibiting strong rubber decomposing properties.

Automobiles↗

PubMed2000

Characterization of M cell development during indomethacin-induced ileitis in rats.

BACKGROUND: M cells play an important role in the intestinal immune system as they have a high capacity for transcytosis of a wide range of microorganisms and macromolecules. However, little is known about the role of M cells during intestinal inflammation. AIM: We studied M cell development during indomethacin-induced intestinal inflammation in rats. METHODS: Ileitis in rats was induced by two subcutaneous injections with indomethacin (7.5 mg/kg) given 24 h apart. Rats were sacrificed after 14 days and tissue was analysed by fluorescence microscopy and electron microscopy. M cells could be visualized by using the FITC-labelled mAb anti-cytokeratin (CK)-8 (clone 4.1.18), which was recently identified as specific M cell marker in rats. The number of cytokeratin-8 positive M cells was related to the surface of the follicle associated epithelium. For morphological studies, we used both transmission electron microscopy (T.E.M.) and scanning electron microscopy (S.E.M.). RESULTS: In non-inflamed ileum M cells were scarce. Only 4% of the follicle associated epithelium were M cells, whereas an increase of M cells up to 11% was found in inflamed follicle associated epithelium (P < 0.001). The rate of M cell induction depended on the macroscopic degree of inflammation. T.E.M./S.E.M. studies showed that in inflamed tissue most M cells underwent apoptosis with typical morphological signs. In contrast to apoptotic M cells, the neighbouring enterocytes usually appeared intact. The number of mononuclear cells below the follicle associated epithelium was significantly increased. S.E.M. studies revealed that during induced ileitis mononuclear cells migrated from the lamina propria into the gut lumen by passing through apoptotic M cells. CONCLUSIONS: During indomethacin-induced ileitis in rats the increase in M cell number in association with apoptosis of M cells may alter the intestinal barrier function. These observations may play a pivotal role in the pathogenesis of chronic intestinal inflammation, e.g. in inflammatory bowel disease.

Animals↗

PubMed2000

Characterization of the cutting edge of glass knives for ultramicrotomy by scanning force microscopy using cantilevers with a defined tip geometry

The geometry of glass knife edges for ultramicrotomy was studied with nanoscale resolution using scanning force microscopy (SFM) in the contact mode. The local shape of the cutting edge was estimated from single line profiles of the SFM topographic images by taking into account the exact radius of the ultrasharp silicon tip. The tip radius was estimated from secondary electron micrographs recorded at low voltage by field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM). The radius of the investigated cutting edges was found to be in range 5-20 nm. The results obtained illustrate that the combination of SFM and high resolution FESEM provides a unique means to determine precisely the radius of glass knives.

Journal Article↗

PubMed2000

In situ localization of latex allergens in 3 different brands of latex gloves by means of immunogold field emission scanning and transmission electron microscopy.

BACKGROUND: Latex proteins represent relevant allergens, particularly for those persons who are frequently exposed to latex products (eg, health care workers and patients with chronic disorders). Although several latex allergens have been characterized by biochemical and molecular biologic techniques, little information is available concerning the in situ localization of allergenic proteins in latex products. OBJECTIVE: The objective of the present study was the in situ localization of latex allergens. METHODS: Serum IgE from patients with latex allergy reacting with a broad range (5-200 kd) of latex allergens was used for the in situ localization of latex allergens. One surgical and 2 examination latex glove brands were investigated by using immunogold field emission scanning and transmission electron microscopy. RESULTS: Allergens were detected on the inner and outer surface of the gloves, particularly near the edges, crests, or folds of the bleb-like structures visible on the surface of the latex material at high magnifications. In ultrathin cross-sections, latex allergens were found throughout the sections. CONCLUSIONS: Latex allergens were localized on the outer and inner surface but also in the interior of latex gloves. The occurrence of latex allergens on the surface of latex products may be related to their potential to induce local reactions and, perhaps, to sensitize individuals by means of contact.

Allergens↗

PubMed2000

Expulsion of allergen-containing materials from hydrated rye grass (Lolium perenne) pollen revealed by using immunogold field emission scanning and transmission electron microscopy.

BACKGROUND: Several studies demonstrated episodes of grass pollen-induced allergic asthma after heavy rainfalls. It has been hypothesized that these asthma attacks might be due to the release of respirable allergen-bearing particles from pollen cytoplasm. OBJECTIVE: In this study we investigated the release mechanism of the most potent and frequently recognized grass pollen allergens, group 1 and group 5, from freshly harvested and subsequently hydrated rye grass pollen at the ultrastructural level. METHODS: Rabbit antisera against purified recombinant group 1 and group 5 allergens were used to investigate, by using field emission scanning and transmission immunogold electron microscopy, the allergen release from rye grass pollen grains into isotonic aqueous solutions or water. RESULTS: Pollen grains exposed to isotonic aqueous solutions remained intact and released allergens by means of diffusion. However, pollen grains hydrated in distilled water or rainwater expelled starch grains and cytoplasmic debris of respirable size. Group 1 and group 5 allergens were observed on and within these materials. CONCLUSIONS: Exposure of rye grass pollen to water leads to an expulsion of subcellular allergen-containing pollen components of respirable size. Our ultrastructural data thus support the idea that this release of allergen-containing respirable pollen materials may be a cause of asthma attacks after heavy rainfalls.

Allergens↗

PubMed2000

Biodegradation of cis-1,4-polyisoprene rubbers by distinct actinomycetes: microbial strategies and detailed surface analysis.

Several actinomycetes isolated from nature were able to use both natural rubber (NR) and synthetic cis-1,4-polyisoprene rubber (IR) as a sole source of carbon. According to their degradation behavior, they were divided into two groups. Representatives of the first group grew only in direct contact to the rubber substrate and led to considerable disintegration of the material during cultivation. The second group consisted of weaker rubber decomposers that did not grow adhesively, as indicated by the formation of clear zones (translucent halos) around bacterial colonies after cultivation on NR dispersed in mineral agar. Taxonomic analysis of four selected strains based on 16S rRNA similarity examinations revealed two Gordonia sp. strains, VH2 and Kb2, and one Mycobacterium fortuitum strain, NF4, belonging to the first group as well as one Micromonospora aurantiaca strain, W2b, belonging to the second group. Schiff's reagent staining tests performed for each of the strains indicated colonization of the rubber surface, formation of a bacterial biofilm, and occurrence of compounds containing aldehyde groups during cultivation with NR latex gloves. Detailed analysis by means of scanning electron microscopy yielded further evidence for the two different microbial strategies and clarified the colonization efficiency. Thereby, strains VH2, Kb2, and NF4 directly adhered to and merged into the rubber material, while strain W2b produced mycelial corridors, especially on the surface of IR. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy comprising the attenuated total reflectance technique was applied on NR latex gloves overgrown by cells of the Gordonia strains, which were the strongest rubber decomposers. Spectra demonstrated the decrease in number of cis-1,4 double bonds, the formation of carbonyl groups, and the change of the overall chemical environment, indicating that an oxidative attack at the double bond is the first metabolic step of the biodegradation process.

Actinomycetales↗

PubMed2000

Purification, biochemical, and immunological characterisation of a major food allergen: different immunoglobulin E recognition of the apo- and calcium-bound forms of carp parvalbumin.

BACKGROUND: Almost 4% of the population suffer from food allergy which is an adverse reaction to food with an underlying immunological mechanism. AIMS: To characterise one of the most frequent IgE defined food allergens, fish parvalbumin. METHODS: Tissue and subcellular distribution of carp parvalbumin was analysed by immunogold electron microscopy and cell fractionation. Parvalbumin was purified to homogeneity, analysed by mass spectrometry and circular dichroism (CD) spectroscopy, and its allergenic activity was analysed by IgE binding and basophil histamine release tests. RESULTS: The isoelectric point (pI) 4.7 form of carp parvalbumin, a three EF-hand calcium-binding protein, was purified to homogeneity. CD analysis revealed a remarkable stability and refolding capacity of calcium-bound parvalbumin. This may explain why parvalbumin, despite cooking and exposure to the gastrointestinal tract, can sensitise patients. Purified parvalbumin reacted with IgE of more than 95% of individuals allergic to fish, induced dose-dependent basophil histamine release and contained, on average, 83% of the IgE epitopes present in other fish species. Calcium depletion reduced the IgE binding capacity of parvalbumin which, according to CD analysis, may be due to conformation-dependent IgE recognition. CONCLUSIONS: Purified carp parvalbumin represents an important cross reactive food allergen. It can be used for in vitro and in vivo diagnosis of fish-induced food allergy. Our finding that the apo-form of parvalbumin had a greatly reduced IgE binding capacity indicates that this form may be a candidate for safe immunotherapy of fish-related food allergy.

Allergens↗

PubMed1999

Molecular, immunological, and structural characterization of Phl p 6, a major allergen and P-particle-associated protein from Timothy grass (Phleum pratense) pollen.

Due to the wide distribution and heavy pollen production of grasses, approximately 50% of allergic patients are sensitized against grass pollen allergens. cDNAs coding for two isoforms and four fragments of a major timothy grass (Phleum pratense) pollen allergen, Phl p 6, were isolated by IgE immunoscreening from a pollen expression cDNA library. Recombinant Phl p 6 (rPhl p 6), an acidic protein of 11.8 kDa, was purified to homogeneity as assessed by mass spectrometry and exhibited almost exclusive alpha-helical secondary structure as determined by circular dichroism spectroscopy. Phl p 6 reacted with serum IgE from 75% of grass pollen-allergic patients (n = 171). IgE binding experiments with rPhl p 6 fragments indicated that the N terminus of the allergen is required for IgE recognition. Purified rPhl p 6 elicited dose-dependent basophil histamine release and immediate type skin reactions in patients allergic to grass pollen. A rabbit antiserum raised against purified rPhl p 6 identified it as a pollen-specific protein that, by immunogold electron microscopy, was localized on the polysaccharide-containing wall-precursor bodies (P-particles). The association of Phl p 6 with P-particles may facilitate its intrusion into the deeper airways and thus be responsible for the high prevalence of IgE recognition of Phl p 6. Recombinant native-like Phl p 6 can be used for in vitro as well as in vivo diagnoses of grass pollen allergy, whereas N-terminal deletion mutants with reduced IgE binding capacity may represent candidates for immunotherapy of grass pollen allergy with a low risk of anaphylactic side effects.

Air Pollutants↗

PubMed1999

pET-prof, a plasmid for high-level expression of recombinant peptides fused to a birch profilin-derived hexadecapeptide tag: a system for the detection and presentation of recombinant antigens.

We have previously identified a birch pollen profilin hexadecapeptide (Bp36/51), which was recognized by a monoclonal antibody (moAb 4A6) with high affinity. Here, we report the construction of a T7 RNA polymerase-driven high-level plasmid expression system, pET-prof, capable of producing proteins and peptides containing the Bp36/51 birch profilin-derived peptide fused to their N-terminus. As examples, the cDNAs coding for two major timothy grass (Phleum pratense) pollen allergens, Phl p 2 and Phl p 6, as well as for an alder (Alnus glutinosa) pollen allergen, Aln g 4, were overexpressed in Escherichia coli as BP36/51-tagged proteins. All three recombinant allergens were readily detected in nitrocellulose-blotted E. coli extracts by the Bp36/51-specific moAb 4A6. We demonstrate comparable IgE recognition of Bp36/51-tagged and untagged recombinant allergens by immunoblotting. A sandwich ELISA was developed using plate-bound moAb 4A6 to immobilize and present Bp36/51-tagged recombinant allergens to IgE antibodies of allergic patients. Using immunoelectronmicroscopy, we demonstrate that even under harsh fixation conditions, tagged allergens can be localized simultaneously in situ by moAb 4A6 and allergen-specific antisera. We suggest the use of the pET-prof system for the high-level expression of Bp36/51-tagged polypeptides that can be rapidly detected in total protein extracts, immunolocalized in situ, immobilized and presented to other antigen-specific antibodies (e.g. IgE), even when they occur in minute concentrations.

Allergens↗

PubMed1999

Simultaneous apocrine and merocrine secretion in the rat coagulating gland.

The coagulating gland of the rat synthesizes two prevalent secretory proteins (transglutaminase and 115 K) that are discharched in a different manner, one being secreted in an apocrine fashion (transglutaminase) and the other one in a merocrine way (115 K). Differences in the intra- cellular pathway and the release of either protein were studied using immunofluorescence on semithin sections, immunoelectron microscopy of preembedding-processed chopper sections and postembedding-processed ultrathin sections of rat coagulating gland. Immunohistochemical staining using an anti-transglutaminase antibody resulted in dense labeling of the cytoplasm of secretory cells and their apical blebs, whereas the cisternae of the rough endoplasmic reticulum and the Golgi apparatus were completely unlabeled. When, on the contrary, the anti-115 K antiserum was used, dense labeling of the cisternae of the rough endoplasmic reticulum, the Golgi apparatus, and the secretory granules was seen. Intraluminal secretion was also labeled, but the secretory blebs remained unlabeled. Our findings show that, in the coagulating gland of the male rat, the two secretory proteins studied are processed in parallel, but at completely different intracellular pathways. They are released via different extrusion mechanisms. Transglutaminase is synthesized outside the endoplasmic reticulum, reaches the apical cell pole by free flow in the cytoplasm, and is released via apocrine blebs, the membranes of which appear to be derived from the apical plasma membrane. The protein 115 K, on the other hand, follows the classic route, being synthesized within the cisternae of rough endoplasmic reticulum, subsequently glycosylated in the Golgi apparatus, and released in a merocrine fashion. The mutual exclusion of the two secretory pathways and the regulation of the alternative release mechanism are still unresolved issues.

Animals↗

PubMed1999

A new protocol to prepare dry plant specimens for electron microscopy and immunocytochemistry.

Samples from dry kidney bean cotyledons were fixed in acrolein vapor and embedded in Lowicryl K4M using a modified dehydration and embedding technique. The preservation of morphology as investigated by transmission electron microscopy was excellent showing desiccated cells and organelles in life-like preservation. Postembedding immunogold labeling for kidney bean purple acid phosphatase (KbPAP) showed association of kbPAP with ribosome-rich areas of the cytoplasm.

Acid Phosphatase↗

PubMed1999

Characterization of 17beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase activity in brain tissue: testosterone formation in the human temporal lobe.

Sex steroids exert important effects on the central nervous system (CNS). Although the formation of 17beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (17beta-HSD) metabolites in the CNS was discovered almost 30 years ago, conclusive studies concerning 17beta-HSD activity in the human brain are still lacking. Therefore, we investigated 17beta-HSD in vitro activity in human temporal lobe biopsies of 13 women and 13 men using radioactively labelled androstenedione, testosterone, oestrone and 17beta-oestradiol and compared it to that in human placenta, liver, testis and prostate. We could demonstrate androgenic and oestrogenic 17beta-HSD activities in all tissues under investigation. The reduction of androstenedione and oestrone in brain was NADPH dependent with a broad pH optimum between 6.5 and 9.0, whereas the oxidation of testosterone and 17beta-oestradiol was NAD dependent with a pH optimum of >/=9.0. Using optimum cofactors sex differences of brain 17beta-HSD activities were not observed. Conversion of androstenedione, testosterone, oestrone and 17beta-oestradiol was significantly higher in the subcortical white matter than in the cerebral cortex. We could demonstrate a significant formation of testosterone in the brain tissue of all patients under investigation. Substrate specificity and cofactor requirement patterns as well as pH optima and kinetic properties suggest the occurrence of 17beta-HSD type 3 and type 4 in the human temporal lobe.

17-Hydroxysteroid Dehydrogenases↗