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Biomedical subjects

Steven M Levy

Publications and source records attributed to Steven M Levy.

At least 19 recordsLinked to original sources
PubMed2007

Comparison of the intakes of sugars by young children with and without dental caries experience.

BACKGROUND: Relationships among sugars and dental caries in contemporary societies are unclear. The authors describe young children's intakes of nonmilk extrinsic (NME) and intrinsic/milk sugars and relate those intakes to dental caries. METHODS: The authors conducted cross-sectional analyses of dietary data collected from the Iowa Fluoride Study using three-day diaries for subjects at ages 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 years and for subjects aged 1 through 5 years according to dental caries experience at 4.5 to 6.9 years of age. They categorized foods and beverages as containing NME or intrinsic/milk sugars. RESULTS: Subjects' total, NME, food NME and intrinsic/milk sugars intakes at ages studied did not differ between subjects with and without caries experience. Beverage NME sugars intakes at age 3 years predicted caries (P < .05) in logistic regression models adjusted for age at dental examination and for fluoride intake. CONCLUSIONS: Dental caries is a complex, multifactorial disease process dependent on the presence of oral bacteria, a fermentable carbohydrate substrate and host enamel. A simple NME-intrinsic/milk sugars categorization appears insufficient to capture the complex dietary component of the caries process. CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS: Cariogenicity is more likely a function of the food and/or beverage vehicle delivering the sugar and the nature of exposure-that is, frequency and length of eating events-than of the sugar's categorization.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2006

Changes in the prevalence of nonnutritive sucking patterns in the first 8 years of life.

INTRODUCTION: The purposes of the study were to determine prospectively the duration of nonnutritive sucking behaviors of children between 1 and 8 years of age and the effect of persistent habits on selected occlusal characteristics in the late deciduous dentition. METHODS: Sucking behavior data were initially collected from 797 children who were followed longitudinally from birth; the data came from periodic questionnaires completed by the parents. In addition, study models were obtained for 372 children at 4 to 5 years of age and assessed for posterior crossbite, anterior open bite, and overjet. The subjects were grouped according to the duration and type of habit (pacifier or digit, for less than 12 months or more than 48 months). Children with nonnutritive sucking of less than 12 months were further grouped according to the duration of breast-feeding. The McNemar nonparametric test was used to compare the changes in the incidence and effect of the habits with time. RESULTS: There was a significant (P = .001) decrease in the incidence of pacifier habits between 1 and 5 years of age, from 40% to 1%. There was a significant (P = .01) decrease in the incidence of digit habits between 1 and 4 years of age, from 31% to 12%. Between 4 and 7 years of age, the decrease in the incidence reached a plateau--ie, the decrease continued but at a slower rate. Between 7 and 8 years of age, there was an additional significant (P = .008) decrease in the incidence of digit habits, but 4% of the children were, to various extents, still sucking fingers. Children who had pacifier or digit habits lasting less than 12 months did not have significantly different occlusal characteristics than children who were breast-fed for 6 to 12 months. Prolonged pacifier and digit habits caused significant changes in the occlusal characteristics in the late deciduous dentition, and the effects of pacifier habits were different from those of digit sucking. CONCLUSIONS: To intercept the development of crossbites and functional shifts, the developing occlusion should be observed in the deciduous dentition in children with prolonged digit or pacifier habits. The transverse occlusal relationship, particularly in pacifier-sucking children, should be evaluated between 2 and 3 years of age. If there are interfering contacts of the deciduous canines, the parents should be instructed to reduce pacifier-sucking time, and appropriate treatment should be rendered, if required.

Chi-Square Distribution↗
PubMed2006

Physical activity augments bone mineral accrual in young children: The Iowa Bone Development study.

OBJECTIVES: This 3-year follow-up study examined associations between physical activity and bone mineral content (BMC) and whether physical activity augments BMC accrual. STUDY DESIGN: Participants were 370 children (mean age baseline 5.3 years, follow-up 8.6 years). Physical activity was measured using 4-day accelerometry. BMC was measured using dual energy x-ray absorptiometry. RESULTS: After adjustment for baseline BMC, age, and body size, mean physical activity predicted follow-up BMC at the hip, trochanter, spine, and whole body in boys and at the trochanter and whole body in girls. The variability in BMC explained by physical activity was modest (1% to 2%). However, based on a general linear model with adjustment for baseline BMC and body size, children who maintained high levels of physical activity accrued, on average, 14% more trochanteric BMC and 5% more whole-body BMC relative to peers maintaining low levels of physical activity. CONCLUSIONS: This study suggests that maintaining high levels of everyday physical activity contributes to increases in BMC in young children, particularly at the trochanter.

Bone Density↗
PubMed2006

Changes in dental fluorosis following the cessation of water fluoridation.

OBJECTIVES: To determine changes in the prevalence of dental fluorosis, and in perceptions of aesthetic concerns due to dental fluorosis after water fluoridation ceased. METHODS: Schoolchildren in second and third grades were examined in 1993-94, 1996-97 and 2002-03 to determine changes in the prevalence of dental fluorosis following fluoridation cessation of the public water supplies in 1992. The Thylstrup-Fejerskov Index (TFI) was used to quantify dental fluorosis. Perceptions of aesthetics were assessed by questionnaires which were sent home to parents. Residence and dental histories were confirmed on all children to determine the extent of exposure to all types of fluorides. Comparisons between the three surveys were used to establish the influence of fluoridated water and other fluoride sources on the occurrence and severity of dental fluorosis. Aesthetic ratings from parents were used to assess the aesthetic conditions of maxillary anterior teeth across the three surveys. RESULTS: When fluoride was removed from the water supply in 1992, the prevalence and severity of TFI scores decreased significantly from the 1993-94 survey cycle when compared with the 1996-97 and 2002-03 survey cycles. The use of fluoride supplements and fluoride dentifrice also decreased during this study period. Analyses were unable to determine the influence of these different fluoride exposures on the changes in TFI scores over time. Comparisons of aesthetic ratings from parents between survey cycles failed to show any significant differences.

Attitude to Health↗
PubMed2006

Timing of fluoride intake in relation to development of fluorosis on maxillary central incisors.

OBJECTIVES: Several studies have focused on the timing of fluoride intake relative to the development of dental fluorosis. This study reports the relationships of fluoride intake during the first 48 months of life with fluorosis on early-erupting permanent teeth. METHODS: Subjects were followed from birth to 48 months with questionnaires every 3-4 months. Questionnaires gathered data on intakes from water, diet, supplements, and dentifrice to estimate total fluoride intake. Early-erupting permanent teeth of 579 subjects were assessed for fluorosis using the Fluorosis Risk Index (FRI) at approximately age 9. Fluorosis cases were defined as having FRI definitive or severe fluorosis on both maxillary central incisors. Individuals with FRI questionable fluorosis were excluded. The importance of fluoride intake during different time periods was assessed using t-tests and logistic regression. RESULTS: One hundred and thirty-nine (24%) subjects had fluorosis on both maxillary central incisors. Mean fluoride intake per unit body weight (bw) ranged from 0.040 to 0.057 mg/kg bw, with higher intake during earlier time periods and relative stability after 16 months. In bivariate analyses, fluoride intakes during each of the first 4 years were individually significantly related to fluorosis on maxillary central incisors, with the first year most important (P < 0.01), followed by the second (P < 0.01), third (P < 0.01), and fourth year (P = 0.03). Multivariable logistic regression analyses showed that, after controlling only for the first year, the later years individually were still statistically significant. When all four time periods were in the model, the first (P < 0.01) and second years (P = 0.04) were still significant, but the third (P = 0.32) and fourth (P = 0.82) were not. CONCLUSIONS: The first two years of life were most important to fluorosis development in permanent maxillary central incisors; however, this study also suggests the importance of other individual years.

Age Factors↗
PubMed2006

Longitudinal study of non-cavitated carious lesion progression in the primary dentition.

OBJECTIVES: This study reports changes in non-cavitated tooth surface diagnoses after a 4-year period. METHODS: Dental examinations were conducted for Iowa Fluoride Study cohort children who had non-cavitated lesions in the primary dentition and were also examined an average of 4 years later in the mixed dentition. Comparison of fluoride exposures, socioeconomic factors, and beverage consumption patterns were made between children who had lesions progress and those who did not. RESULTS: Of 129 non-cavitated pit and fissure lesions in the first exams, 40 (31%) progressed to either frank decay or filled status, while among 132 noncavitated smooth surface lesions, 7 (5%) were filled and none had frank decay in the second exam. No fluoride, socioeconomic status or beverage variables were significantly associated with lesion progression. CONCLUSIONS: Non-cavitated smooth surface lesions rarely progressed in this age group, but nearly one-third of pit and fissure lesions progressed.

Cariostatic Agents↗
PubMed2006

Use of the fluorosis risk index in a cohort study: the Iowa fluoride study.

OBJECTIVES: Several studies have used the Fluorosis Risk Index (FRI) to assess risk factors for dental fluorosis. This study reports fluorosis prevalence estimates in a birth cohort using the FRI in different ways. METHODS: Subjects (n=443) were participants in the Iowa Fluoride Study, a birth cohort study of fluoride exposures and intake, fluorosis, and caries. Early-erupting permanent teeth were assessed for fluorosis using the FRI at approximately age 9. Fluorosis prevalence rates were calculated separately for specific teeth and different combinations of teeth, with varied FRI zones included and using different thresholds. Mean numbers of teeth with fluorosis were calculated. RESULTS: Tooth-specific fluorosis prevalence varied, with maxillary central incisor fluorosis most prevalent and mandibular incisors least affected. Considering three zones of each tooth (cervical zones excluded), 40.6% overall had at least one tooth with mild or more involved fluorosis, 30.2% were questionable fluorosis, and 29.1% had no fluorosis. When only FRI zone I areas were considered, the corresponding percentages were 33.2%, 29.3%, and 37.5%, respectively. When different combinations of teeth were used to define fluorosis cases, the prevalences estimated using three zones were generally 1 to 9 percentage points higher than those estimated from FRI zone 1 only. Most fluorosis was mild, with only 7 individuals (1.6%) having FRI severe fluorosis. CONCLUSIONS: The FRI has advantages for use in analytical epidemiologic studies of dental fluorosis. However, the population prevalence estimates vary, depending on the index and case definition used. Therefore, it is recommended that consideration be given to concurrent use of another index (i.e., TSIF, TF, Dean's) if prevalence estimates are an important study outcome.

Cariostatic Agents↗
PubMed2006

Associations between dental fluorosis of the permanent and primary dentitions.

OBJECTIVES: Relatively little is known about associations between primary and permanent tooth fluorosis. In this study, associations between dental fluorosis of the permanent and primary dentitions were assessed. METHODS: Subjects (n = 601) are in the Iowa Fluoride Study, which included fluorosis examinations of the primary and early-erupting permanent dentitions by trained dentist examiners. Relative risks, correlations, and logistic regression assessed associations between permanent tooth fluorosis and primary molar fluorosis. RESULTS: Ten percent had primary molar fluorosis at age 5; 36% had definitive (mostly mild), 28% questionable, and 36% no permanent incisor fluorosis at age 9. Those with primary molar fluorosis were significantly more likely to have definitive permanent incisor fluorosis (76% vs. 32%), and permanent molar fluorosis (59% vs. 16%). The strong association between primary and permanent tooth fluorosis is independent of level of fluoride intake. CONCLUSIONS: Detection of primary tooth fluorosis in pre-school children should alert clinicians and parents to the high likelihood of subsequent fluorosis in the permanent dentition.

Child↗
PubMed2006

Fluoride intake levels in relation to fluorosis development in permanent maxillary central incisors and first molars.

Gaps remain in our knowledge about the levels of fluoride intake that cause dental fluorosis. The purpose of this study was to report the fluorosis prevalence by levels of estimated fluoride intake in an effort to understand the importance of different levels of daily fluoride intake. As part of the longitudinal Iowa Fluoride Study, subjects were followed from birth to 36 months with questionnaires every 3-4 months to gather information on fluoride intake from various sources. Daily fluoride intake in mg per kg body weight (BW) was estimated from water, beverages and selected foods, fluoride supplements and dentifrice. Six hundred and twenty-eight subjects were examined for fluorosis on permanent incisors and first molars at about age 9 by two calibrated examiners using the Fluorosis Risk Index categories. Fluorosis prevalence rates were determined separately for maxillary central incisors and first molars by levels of estimated fluoride intake. There were significant positive associations between fluorosis prevalence and levels of fluoride intake. Cumulatively from birth to 36 months, average daily intake of 0.04 mg F/kg BW or less carried relatively low risk for fluorosis (12.9% for maxillary central incisors, 6.8% for first molars). Average daily intake of 0.04-0.06 mg F/kg BW showed a significantly elevated risk for fluorosis (23.0% for maxillary central incisors, 14.5% for first molars), while fluorosis risk was even higher for average intake above 0.06 mg F/kg BW (38.0% for maxillary central incisors, 32.4% for first molars). The study suggests that fluorosis prevalence is related to elevated fluoride intake when averaged over the first 3 years of life, but is even more strongly related to fluoride intake that is elevated for all of the first 3 years of life.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

Fluoride dentifrice ingestion and fluorosis of the permanent incisors.

BACKGROUND: Fluoride dentifrice is a primary means of preventing childhood caries, but it is also an important risk factor for fluorosis. The authors examine the influence of fluoride dentifrice ingestion on fluorosis of the permanent incisors. METHODS: Participants in the Iowa Fluoride Study received questionnaires at regular intervals concerning fluoride sources. The authors assessed fluorosis using the fluorosis risk index. They estimated daily fluoride ingestion from dentifrice, diet and fluoride supplements and divided the amount by kilograms of body weight. The statistical analysis related fluoride ingestion to fluorosis in the permanent incisors. RESULTS: In bivariate analyses, mild fluorosis was significantly related to ingestion of fluoride dentifrice at ages 24 and 36 months (P = .02 for both). After the authors adjusted for fluoride ingested from dietary sources, logistic regression showed a significant association between fluorosis and dentifrice ingestion at age 24 months (P = .04). CONCLUSIONS: The study results suggest that fluorosis of the permanent incisors is influenced by ingestion of fluoride dentifrice during the first three years of life. Further research is needed to assess total intake of fluoride as a risk factor for fluorosis. CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS: These results support recommendations that young children use only a pea-sized amount of dentifrice. Parents should supervise young children as they brush their teeth with fluoride dentifrice.

Age Factors↗
PubMed2005

Association of amoxicillin use during early childhood with developmental tooth enamel defects.

BACKGROUND: It has been speculated that amoxicillin use could be associated with dental enamel defects. OBJECTIVE: To assess the association between dental fluorosis, one of the most common developmental tooth enamel defects, and amoxicillin use during early childhood. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS: As participants in the Iowa Fluoride Study, subjects were followed up from birth to 32 months using questionnaires every 3 to 4 months to gather information on fluoride intake and amoxicillin use. METHODS: Early-erupting permanent teeth of 579 subjects were assessed for fluorosis using the Fluorosis Risk Index at approximately the age of 9 years. Relationships between fluorosis and amoxicillin use were assessed using relative risk (RR), Mantel-Haenszel stratified analyses, and multivariable logistic regression. RESULTS: Amoxicillin use was reported by 75% of subjects by 12 months and 91% by 32 months. Overall, 24% had fluorosis on both maxillary central incisors. Amoxicillin use from 3 to 6 months significantly increased the risk of fluorosis on the maxillary central incisors (RR = 2.04; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.49-2.78). After adjusting for fluoride intake and otitis media, the risk of fluorosis on the maxillary central incisors from amoxicillin use during 3 to 6 months (Mantel-Haenszel RR = 1.85; 95% CI, 1.20-2.78) was still statistically significant. Multivariable logistic regression analyses confirmed the increased risk of fluorosis from amoxicillin use during 3 to 6 months (odds ratio = 2.50; 95% CI, 1.21-5.15); fluoride intake was also statistically significant. CONCLUSION: The findings from this study suggest a link between amoxicillin use during infancy and developmental enamel defects of permanent teeth; however, further research is needed.

Amoxicillin↗
PubMed2005

Tracking of activity and sedentary behaviors in childhood: the Iowa Bone Development Study.

BACKGROUND: Physical activity tracking studies can determine when children settle into activity patterns and their risk for maintaining sedentary behaviors. This study examined the tracking of activity and sedentary behavior in relation to adiposity during middle childhood. METHODS: Activity intensities and patterns were examined during a 3-year interval in a population-based study of children using accelerometry and survey methods. Data were collected and analyzed from 1998 to 2004. Participants (n = 379) were, on average, 5.6 (standard deviation [SD] +/- 0.5) years at baseline and 8.6 (SD +/- 0.5) years at follow-up. Adiposity was measured with whole-body, dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry. Correlation coefficients and odds ratios were used to assess tracking. The association of activity with adiposity was tested using the Wilcoxon rank-sum test. RESULTS: Over the 3-year interval, Spearman rank-order correlation coefficients between baseline and follow-up activity measures were low to moderate (r = 0.18 to 0.39). Sedentary behavior was more predictable than overall activity, and tended to be more stable (r = 0.37 to 0.52), with the exception of video playing in boys (r = 0.18). Children maintaining a high degree of vigorous activity and low levels of TV viewing were less likely than peers to be in the upper quartile for adiposity at follow-up, and were less likely to gain adiposity during the study period. CONCLUSIONS: Sedentary behavior, including TV viewing, is moderately stable during middle childhood. Health promotion programs that specifically target maintaining high levels of vigorous activity and low levels of TV viewing may help reduce the increasing prevalence of childhood obesity.

Absorptiometry, Photon↗
PubMed2005

Longitudinal patterns of vitamin and mineral supplement use in young white children.

OBJECTIVES: The objective of this article is to report longitudinal patterns of nutrient supplementation in children, to quantify nutrient intakes from supplements and diet, and to examine relationships between supplement use and sociodemographic factors. DESIGN AND SUBJECTS: Subjects were followed prospectively from birth to 24 months with periodic questionnaires on vitamin/mineral supplement use. Food diaries were completed to report food and beverage intake. Estimates of daily intakes of vitamins and minerals were calculated. Fisher's Exact tests and t tests were used to assess the association of sociodemographic variables with supplement use. RESULTS: A substantial proportion of young children used supplements. The prevalence of supplement use increased with age. By the end of 24 months, 31.7% used some supplement. Young supplement users consume supplements regularly, ranging from 40% to 60% of days reported. The majority of young children in this cohort could obtain adequate vitamins and minerals from diet alone for the first 24 months of life. Intakes of some nutrients from diet alone, such as vitamin E and folate, were not sufficient for a large proportion of young children. However, intake above the dietary reference intake was observed for a few nutrients, in particular for vitamin A. CONCLUSIONS: Use of nutrient supplements is a common behavior during the first 2 years of life. This study shows that most young children obtain adequate nutrients from diet alone. Health professionals should provide recommendations for nutrient supplementation of generally healthy children based on an assessment of their dietary practices.

Breast Feeding↗
PubMed2005

Diet quality in young children is influenced by beverage consumption.

BACKGROUND: Replacement of milk with sugar-containing beverages could affect calcium intake and overall diet quality. OBJECTIVE: To describe dairy food, 100% juice and added sugar beverage intakes, contributions of dairy foods to diet quality, and effects of beverages on diet quality in young children. METHODS: We surveyed participants in the Iowa Fluoride Study (n = 645) at ages 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 years and calculated intakes for 1-5 years (i.e. weighted averages). Nutrient, dairy food and beverage intakes were obtained from 3-day diaries; nutrient adequacy ratios were calculated as the nutrient intake to Recommended Dietary Allowance/Adequate Intake ratio; and dairy-dependent percentages were calculated as fractions of total diet nutrient adequacy ratios (truncated at 1) not met by non-dairy foods. RESULTS: Milk intakes were inversely associated with intakes of juice drinks (2, 4, 5 and 1-5 years), soda pop (2, 3, 4, 5 and 1-5 years) and added sugar beverages (2, 3, 4, 5 and 1-5 years). Dairy dependent fractions of 1-5 year nutrient adequacy ratios were 68% for calcium and 61% for vitamin D. Higher 1-5 year calcium adequacy was predicted by higher energy, higher other dairy and lower added sugar beverage intakes while higher vitamin D adequacy was predicted by higher energy and higher other dairy intakes. Overall diet quality was predicted by higher energy, higher other dairy, lower 100% juice and lower added sugar beverage intakes. CONCLUSIONS: Dairy foods remain an important source of calcium and vitamin D, while added sugar beverages and, to a lesser extent, 100% juice decrease diet quality of young children.

Animals↗
PubMed2005

Patterns of dietary fluoride supplement use in children from birth to 96 months of age.

OBJECTIVE: This paper reports on fluoride supplement use from birth to age 96 months. METHODS: As part of the Iowa Fluoride Study, questionnaires were mailed at 3 to 6- month intervals assessing use of supplements. Estimated fluoride intake from supplements was calculated as a daily fluoride intake in mg. Analyses include descriptive statistics of supplements use for individual periods, area-under-the-curve (AUC) for combined periods, and associations between fluoride supplement use and demographic covariates. RESULTS: Participants (n=1,388) were mostly white, with about two-thirds of parents having some college education. Percentages using fluoride supplements were 11.2% (12 months), 6.3% to 6.8% (24, 36, 48 and 60 months) and 3.6% to 4.7% (72, 84 and 96 months). Physicians prescribed most supplements until age three. The mean supplement dosage when used gradually increased from 0.25 mg (12 months) to 0.82 mg (84 months) and 0.75 mg (96 months). The effective mean daily fluoride supplement quantities ingested among users for the successive age groups from 12 to 96 months old were 0.14, 0.14, 0.25, 0.34, 0.37, 0.43, 0.48, and 0.37 mg, respectively. Estimated daily average fluoride ingested from supplements increased from 0.06 mg (birth-12 months) to 0.07 mg (12-60 months) to 0.18 mg (60-96 months). CONCLUSION: Fluoride supplement use patterns varied substantially among individuals; however, average use within the intervals birth-12 months, 12-60 months, and 60-96 months was fairly consistent.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2005

The roles of meal, snack, and daily total food and beverage exposures on caries experience in young children.

OBJECTIVES: This study describes associations among caries experience and meal, snack and daily total exposures to beverages and foods in children. METHODS: Subjects (n = 634) were members of the Iowa Fluoride Study. Beverage and food exposures were abstracted from 3-day diaries at 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 years and calculated for 1-5 years. Eating events were defined as 30-minute intervals and categorized as meals or snacks based on time of consumption and nature of the foods. Beverage and food exposures were categorized by carbohydrate content. Dental examinations were conducted at 4.5-6.8 years; caries experience was dichotomized (any vs. none). Logistic regression models were developed to determine if caries experience differed for the fourth vs. first quartile of exposure after adjustment for age at dental exam and fluoride intake. RESULTS: Higher snack (1, 2, 3, 4, 1-5 years) and daily total (2, 3, 4, 1-5 years) eating events increased caries risk (P < 0.05). Higher exposures to 100% juice at snacks (2 years) and soda pop at meals (2, 1-5 years), snacks (2, 3, 4, 1-5 years) and daily total (2, 3, 4, 1-5 years) increased caries risk (P < 0.05). Higher exposures to food sugars (3, 1-5 years) and starches (4, 5, 1-5 years) at meals decreased caries risk, while higher exposures to sugars (4, 1-5 years) at snacks increased caries risk (P < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Dietary methods used to investigate diet-caries relationships can influence the outcome. The cariogenicity of food, but not beverages, is associated with the timing of exposure.

Beverages↗
PubMed2005

Percentile distributions of bone measurements in Iowa children: the Iowa Bone Development Study.

Four hundred twenty-eight white children (200 boys and 228 girls) ages 4.5-6.5 yr had spine, hip, and whole-body bone mineral density (BMD) and bone mineral content (BMC) measured by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry(DXA) as part of the Iowa Bone Development Study. Anthropometric measurements, including height, weight, and body mass index (BMI) were determined for each child at the time the bone measurements were made. The age- and gender-specific height percentile based on the 2000 CDC Growth Charts (www.cdc.gov/growthcharts/) was determined for each child. These percentiles were used to classify children into four groups as defined by the 25th, 50th,and 75th percentile cutpoints. Percentile distributions were determined within each height quartile group to delineate percentiles (5th, 25th, 50th, 75th, 95th) for BMD and BMC. Gender differences in BMD and BMC were investigated before and after stratification into height groups. Boys had higher age-height-weight-adjusted means for most BMD and BMC measures except spine BMD. Bone measurements increased with height quartile, indicating that taller children have greater BMD and BMC compared to shorter children of the same age and gender. Within any given quartile,mean BMD and BMC measurements were similar for boys and girls, with the exception of hip BMD, for which values were consistently higher for boys (p < 0.05). In addition, whole-body BMC values were higher for boys in quartiles 1 and 3 (p < 0.05). These bone measures provide norms for young white children and serve as a reference for comparison with other racial and ethnic groups, as well as with childhood populations that are at risk for osteopenia because of chronic disease. Gender, age, and height are useful clinical predictors of BMD and BMC in young children.

Bone Density↗