Biomedical subjects

T F Watson

Publications and source records attributed to T F Watson.

At least 37 records · Page 2Linked to original sources

PubMed2001

Microtensile bond strength and confocal microscopy of dental adhesives bonded to root canal dentin.

PURPOSE: To evaluate the bond strength of two dentin-bonding systems to root canal dentin. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Six central incisors, extracted for periodontal reasons, were endodontically treated, no obturation of the root canal space was performed. The teeth were cut parallel to their long axis. One half of each tooth was randomly assigned to one of two experimental groups. The teeth of the first group were treated with All-Bond 2 dental adhesive and those of the second group with Panavia F. The root canal dentin was conditioned as suggested by the manufacturers and, after the application of the dental adhesives, a layer of resin-based composite was polymerized over the adhesive layer. After the composite had completely set, the sections were prepared for microtensile test and kept in a wet environment at a relative humidity of 90 +/- 2% measured with a digital relative humidity meter and at a temperature of 22 degrees C for 24 hrs. The specimens were sectioned perpendicularly to the bonded interface, into slabs 1.5 mm thick (10 sections for each experimental group). The slabs were then trimmed by super fine diamond burs for the microtensile bond test with the narrowest region located at the respective bonded interface. The thickness of the slab was then exactly established by three measurements performed in three points of each slab by a digital micrometer. The specimens were then subjected to a tensile force at a crosshead speed of 0.2 mm/min. The test was observed using a confocal microscope and the failure modes were noted. The load at failure was registered and the bonded area was measured using a confocal microscope at a magnification of x25 in conjunction with an image-processing program. The failure data were analyzed using the Wilcoxon-Gehan test with exact non-parametric inference. RESULTS: The mean value at failure was the same for the two experimental groups (17.1 MPa). There was no statistically significant difference between Panavia F and All-Bond 2 (P> 0.8671). Most of the specimens showed a debonding of the adhesive from the hybrid layer. The results showed that the bond strength of the two bonding systems tested to the dentin of the root canal are slightly lower than to those obtained with the latest adhesive systems, in the coronal dentin.

Composite Resins↗

PubMed2000

High and low torque handpieces: cutting dynamics, enamel cracking and tooth temperature.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of these experiments was to compare the cutting dynamics of high-speed high-torque (speed-increasing) and high-speed low-torque (air-turbine) handpieces and evaluate the effect of handpiece torque and bur type on sub-surface enamel cracking. Temperature changes were also recorded in teeth during cavity preparation with high and low torque handpieces with diamond and tungsten carbide (TC) burs. The null hypothesis of this study was that high torque handpieces cause more damage to tooth structure during cutting and lead to a rise in temperature within the pulp-chamber. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Images of the dynamic interactions between burs and enamel were recorded at video rate using a confocal microscope. Central incisors were mounted on a specially made servomotor driven stage for cutting with a type 57 TC bur. The two handpiece types were used with simultaneous recording of cutting load and rate. Sub-surface enamel cracking caused by the use of diamond and TC burs with high and low torque was also examined. Lower third molars were sectioned horizontally to remove the cusp tips and then the two remaining crowns cemented together with cyanoacrylate adhesive, by their flat surfaces. Axial surfaces of the crowns were then prepared with the burs and handpieces. The teeth were then separated and the original sectioned surface examined for any cracks using a confocal microscope. Heat generation was measured using thermocouples placed into the pulp chambers of extracted premolars, with diamond and TC burs/high-low torque handpiece variables, when cutting occlusal and cervical cavities. RESULTS: When lightly loaded the two handpiece types performed similarly. However, marked differences in cutting mechanisms were noted when increased forces were applied to the handpieces with, generally, an increase in cutting rate. The air turbine could not cope with steady heavy loads, tending to stall. 'Rippling' was seen in the interface as this stall developed, coinciding with the bur 'clearing' itself. No differences were noted between different handpieces and burs, in terms of sub-surface enamel cracking. Similarly, no differences were recorded for temperature rise during cavity preparation. CONCLUSIONS: Differences in cutting mechanisms were seen between handpieces with high and low torque, especially when the loads and cutting rates were increased. The speed increasing handpiece was better able to cope with increased loading. Nevertheless, there was no evidence of increased tooth cracking or heating with this type handpiece, indicating that these do not have any deleterious effects on the tooth.

Analysis of Variance↗

PubMed2000

Dentine caries excavation: a review of current clinical techniques.

Since the invention and application of rotary instruments, the operative treatment of carious lesions has often resulted in considerable removal of tooth structure. More recently, newer techniques for removal of carious dentine have been developed in an attempt to minimise this excessive tissue loss. The following article reviews and discusses some of the techniques available to excavate demineralised dentine clinically. These methods can be classified as mechanical and non-mechanical, rotary and non-rotary and include: dental handpieces/burs, manual excavators, air-abrasion, air-polishing, ultrasonication, sono-abrasion, chemo-mechanical methods, lasers and enzymes. The advantages and disadvantages of each technique are discussed.

Air↗

PubMed2000

Scanning electron microscopic observations of human dentine after mechanical caries excavation.

OBJECTIVES: The structural integrity and surface characteristics of dentine remaining after caries excavation may be relevant to the subsequent bonding of adhesive restorative materials to the prepared cavity. This in vitro investigation aimed to analyse the different surface characteristics of the dentine cavity floor created after preparation using five different mechanical and chemo-mechanical methods of excavation: hand excavation, slow-speed bur, sono-abrasion, air-abrasion and Carisolv gel. METHODS: Ten cavities were prepared using each excavation method in extracted teeth with occlusal carious lesions. Epoxy resin replicas of the 50 cavities were manufactured from silicone impressions and then analysed using secondary electron scanning electron microscopy (SEM) to ascertain the surface characteristics of the dentine at the cavity floor. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS: Results from the 50 cavities examined suggested that each alternative excavation technique produced a different and characteristic dentine surface. Carisolv gel was the only method examined that consistently removed the smear layer during excavation to leave exposed dentine tubules at the end of cavity preparation.

Air Abrasion, Dental↗

PubMed2000

Selection for fenpropathrin and fenpropathrin + acephate resistance in the silverleaf whitefly (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae).

A large, genetically diverse pool of Bemisia argentifolii Bellows & Perring was collected in 1994 from different crops, and a mixed colony was established in the laboratory. Subsets of this colony were reared on cotton plants held in large Plexiglas cages, and adult whiteflies were selected for resistance to fenpropathrin and to fenpropathrin + acephate (1:5). Selection was performed by exposing adults to treated glass vials at doses sufficient to give 60-80% mortality. Thirteen generations of adult selection with fenpropathrin + acephate yielded 856.3- and 1,289.3-fold tolerance (using lethal concentration ratio), respectively, to fenpropathrin and to fenpropathrin + acephate, indicating additive genetic variation for resistance in the source population. Selection with fenpropathrin alone yielded only a 10.9-fold increase in tolerance to fenpropathrin at the end of the selection period. There was no significant change in tolerance to fenpropathrin + acephate in this strain. Contrary to expectations, the early onset and the magnitude of resistance attained on selection with fenpropathrin + acephate compared with fenpropathrin alone indicates that this mixture evidently possesses a high degree of selectivity for development of resistance in B. argentifolii. Estimates of realized heritability of resistance to fenpropathrin and to fenpropathrin + acephate in B. argentifolii (in the fenpropathrin + acephate-selected strain) showed that they were significantly higher in the first half of selection (six generations), in both instances. Rearing of the fenpropathrin + acephate-resistant strain under conditions free of insecticides for six generations did not result in any significant decline in resistance, indicating that resistance is fairly stable.

Animals↗

PubMed2000

A literature review of the techniques to measure tooth wear and erosion.

This paper reviews methods to measure tooth wear especially those more recently introduced as a result of improvements in technology. The review searched methods to measure tooth wear and dental erosion from large epidemiological investigations, in vitro and in vivo studies. There seems to be wide variation in techniques used to measure tooth wear and erosion. In vitro techniques may have little direct clinical relevance but can lead to new and more accurate clinical methods. In vivo studies have problems with reference points and accurate validation of the techniques. There is a need for a simple, reliable technique to quantify tooth wear due to erosion.

Diagnostic Imaging↗

PubMed2000

Confocal and multi-photon microscopy of dental hard tissues and biomaterials.

Confocal microscopy is a technique that can be used both in the clinic and the high-resolution microscopy suite. This form of optical microscopy enables high-resolution images to be made of samples with minimum requirements for specimen preparation. Images may be made of either reflections from the sample surface or, if an immersion medium is used to optically couple the objective lens, then sub-surface images can be produced of reflective or fluorescent structures within semi transparent materials such as cells and dental hard tissues. These images are like optical sections, giving thin (> 0.35 microm) slices up to 200 microm below the surface of a mineralized tissue. The technique generates significant improvements in resolution, lying somewhere between that of conventional light microscopy and TEM/SEM. Instruments that work at video-rate allow high-speed events to be examined, such as in vivo clinical studies, cutting of dental tissues and fracture of adhesive interfaces. New dyes offer many exciting prospects for labeling changes in chemical composition in materials or biological tissues, while new imaging techniques such as multi-photon laser excitation of dyes give the potential of greater depth penetration and improved resolution. As with all new techniques the inexperienced should be aware of some of the artifacts inherent to the system. However, the widespread availability of conventional confocal microscopes should give ample opportunity for dental researchers to capitalize on this new technology.

Artifacts↗

PubMed2000

Video rate confocal microscopic imaging of dentin/adhesive interfacial failure under load.

PURPOSE: To obtain information on interfacial failure by recording video rate images of the interface as it failed, while simultaneously recording the load applied. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Fluorescent labeled adhesives were used to retain resin-based composite bobbins on the flat exposed dentin surface of teeth included in epoxy resin blocks. The teeth were secured in a miniature straining stage while the bobbins were loaded in shear mode and the interface viewed with a tandem scanning confocal microscope. Images of the interface during failure were recorded with the aid of computer image processing and storage. The dynamic failure pattern, site of failure (after repositioning the fractured bobbin under the microscope) and shear bond stress were analyzed for four dentin adhesives [OptiBond (OB), Scotchbond Multi-Purpose Plus (SBMP+), Clearfil Liner Bond 2 (CFLB2) and ESPE Bonding System (EBS)]. Control specimens without fluorescent dyes were also studied. Four dynamic patterns of failure were observed: snap, slip/stick, peel and shock wave were seen respectively with OB, SBMP+, CFLB2 and EBS adhesive. The shear bond strengths were ranked EBS*>OB>SBMP+>CFLB2* (*statistically different at alpha=0.05). No significant difference was found between specimens with and without fluorescent dye.

Acid Etching, Dental↗

PubMed1999

A confocal microscopic study relating the autofluorescence of carious dentine to its microhardness.

OBJECTIVE: An in-vitro study to examine the correlation between the distribution of the autofluorescent signal emitted from carious dentine (detected using confocal laser scanning microscopy) and its microhardness, within the depths of human dentine lesions. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Twelve carious teeth were sectioned longitudinally, the cut faces marked with a grid reference line system and colour photomicrographs taken. The same samples were imaged using confocal laser-scanning microscopy for autofluorescence and then subjected to microhardness testing using a Knoop microhardness indenter. Adjacent sound dentine was used as a control reference. Digital image superimposition allowed direct comparisons to be made between the colour, autofluorescence and microhardness of each lesion. RESULTS: Sound enamel and dentine did not autofluorescence. Autofluorescence distribution from carious dentine correlated with the highly softened tissue (detected using the Knoop indenter) and terminated at a level superficial to the translucent zone. This zone was still pigmented. Normal, sound dentine hardness levels were found deep to the translucent zone. CONCLUSIONS: A correlation existed between the zone of autofluorescence and carious dentine that was markedly softened by the carious process. These findings highlighted a possibility that the autofluorescence might be used as an in-vitro, objective histological marker for the softened, carious dentine requiring clinical excavation.

Color↗

PubMed1999

Confocal and scanning electron microscopic study of teeth restored with fiber posts, metal posts, and composite resins.

Forty-two single-rooted lower premolars, extracted for periodontal reasons, were endodontically treated and divided into 7 groups of 6 teeth each. In five of the groups, three different types of carbon fiber posts, quartz fiber posts, and titanium posts were used in combination with All Bond 2 dental adhesive. In two groups, two types of carbon fiber posts were also cemented with Panavia 21 dental adhesive. After 3 wk storage in saline, the teeth were longitudinally sectioned; one half was observed using confocal microscopy and the other by scanning electron microscopy. The specimens were evaluated for the presence of a resin dentin interdiffusion zone for the presence of voids at post-resin-dentin interfaces and for the determination of the fiber posts' structure. Upon examination with the confocal microscope, the interfaces of teeth restored with All Bond 2 showed a higher percentage (p < 0.05) of resin dentin interdiffusion zone than those treated with panavia. The fiber size and the post structure were similar in all the fiber posts observed. Some voids were present inside the fiber post structure.

Bicuspid↗

PubMed1999

The influence of dentine bonding systems and their handling characteristics on the morphology and micropermeability of the dentine adhesive interface.

OBJECTIVES: Development of an adequate interfacial seal is fundamental to achieving a good dentine bond. This study investigates the influence of the properties and application of primers and resin adhesives on dentine interfacial morphology and micropermeability, using a fluorescence confocal microscopy technique. METHODS: Three commercially available (Optibond, Clearfil Liner Bond 2, Pertac Universal Bond) and four experimental dentine bonding systems based on the total each technique were used in the study. Approximal cavities were prepared in third molar teeth and restored using the dentine bonding system (DBS) and resin composite. In the interfacial morphology study the primer and adhesive bonding system were labelled with fluorescent dyes, while in the micropermeability study the pulp chambers were filled with fluorescent labelled saline for 3 h. Ten teeth were prepared in each study for each dentine bonding system. Teeth were sectioned longitudinally and viewed with a tandem or laser scanning confocal microscope. Interfacial micropermeability from the pulpal wall was measured using image analysis techniques. RESULTS: All primers and adhesives showed good penetration of the prepared dentine, except Pertac Universal Bond which manifested 100% micropermeability. The lowest micropermeability results were obtained with Clearfil Liner Bond 2, Optibond and a total etch experimental system where the primer was applied with agitation and contained no photo-initiators and the adhesive resin was unfilled. The latter, when used with a photosensitive version of the same primer, demonstrated a detrimental effect on micropermeability. Light activation of primers in the experimental systems coincided with very variable patterns of leakage. CONCLUSIONS: This high resolution confocal fluorescence technique enabled both the degree and site of micropermeability within the interfaces to be recorded. Matching of primers and adhesives in DBS is important to minimize micropermeability. The non-polymerized primer system probably retained some elasticity in the hybrid zone and so gave less leakage than experimental primers with photo-initiators.

Dentin↗

PubMed1999

Failure of resin-modified glass-ionomers subjected to shear loading.

The mechanism of bond failure of resin-modified glass-ionomers is unknown. This study examined the failure on shear loading at the dentine interface of these materials. Twenty-five teeth (embedded in acrylic blocks) were sectioned longitudinally to expose a flat dentine surface. Cylinders of materials were made by injecting into a tube placed on the dentine of each section surface. The materials used were Fuji Cap II and Fuji II LC (GC Corp., Japan), Vitremer (3M Dental Products, USA), Photac-Fil (original) and Photac-Fil* (new) (ESPE Dental-AG, Germany). After a week, a fluorescent dye was placed in the pulp chamber of each tooth and left for 3 h. The specimens were sectioned through the cylinders before both halves were tested in shear. The failure was observed using a confocal microscope, with video rate images (stored) digitally. The shear load at failure and locus of failure were recorded. All specimens had intact interfaces before testing, except the original Photac-Fil specimens which dislodged from their tooth surfaces even before testing, while being mounted on the device. An amorphous zone or absorption layer was noted at the dentine interface of 60% of Fuji II LC, 22% of Vitremer and all of the Photac-Fil* (new) specimens, but not in Fuji Cap II. Failure was cohesive in Fuji II LC, adhesive in Vitremer, cohesive/adhesive in Photac-Fil* (new) and cohesive in Fuji Cap II. In specimens with the absorption layer present, the failure was at the material/absorption layer interface, leaving it behind on the dentine surface. The mean stresses at failure (MPa) and standard deviations were 5.60, 2.46 (Fuji II LC); 4.82, 0.99 (Vitremer); 4.97, 2.10 MPa (Photac-Fil*); and 3.48, 1.06 (Fuji Cap II). All data were normally distributed as tested by the Shapiro-Francia test. One-way analysis of variance using exact inferential statistics indicated no significant difference between the mean failure stress for all the systems, p = 0.08. The mechanism of failure of resin-modified glass-ionomer materials to shear loading at the dentine interface varies between products. In materials in which the absorption layer is present, it appears to play an important role in mediating the bond of the glass-ionomer to dentine.

Adhesiveness↗

PubMed1999

Laser light transmission in teeth: a study of the patterns in different species.

AIM: The aim of this study was to investigate the pattern of light transmission through teeth of different species and to examine laser light propagation within enamel from various animal sources. METHODOLOGY: Sectioned teeth from five species--pig, horse, sheep, cat and rat--were evaluated. Samples were illuminated individually by a helium-neon laser light from the buccal surface using a probe 0.5 mm in diameter placed at varying angles between 60 and 120 degrees C. The pattern of light transmission was observed macroscopically. Further evaluation of laser light transmission in enamel was achieved using confocal microscopy. RESULTS: In each species, light was transmitted through the tooth to the pulp, but in the cat and the rat, light was also transmitted to the far side of the tooth. Despite the different patterns of enamel in the species, light was transmitted through enamel to dentine. CONCLUSION: Light from a laser Doppler probe appeared to reach the dental pulp in all the species: however, in the mammals with smaller teeth, light may also have been able to reach the periodontium and thus the reflected signal may not be entirely of pulpal origin.

Animals↗

PubMed1999

Variable polymerisation shrinkage and the interfacial micropermeability of a dentin bonding system.

PURPOSE: Adhesive bonds are subjected to competing stresses whilst a restoration is setting. This study aimed to determine the effect of these stresses on a chemically- and light-activated dentin adhesive (Scotch Bond MultiPurpose Plus: SBMP+) by assessing the morphology and micropermeability of the interfacial region. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Restorative materials and techniques were selected to impart differing setting stresses to the adhesive interface. An amalgam (Dispersalloy), a light-activated composite (Z100) with a high- or low-intensity curing light, and chemically-activated composite (Adaptic) were placed either in bulk (4 mm thickness) or in one thin layer (2 mm) in occlusal cavities in 55 freshly extracted third molars. In addition, thin composite restorations were placed on 15 horizontally sectioned teeth using a glass slide as a rigid clear matrix. The pulp chambers of all samples were filled with rhodamine B dye solution for 4 hours. Samples were longitudinally sectioned and the interfacial dye leakage measured using a confocal optical microscope. Data were analysed using the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test. RESULTS: In occlusal cavities, Z100 had significantly more leakage than the amalgam and Adaptic. There was no significant difference in micropermeability between large and small increments, or curing light intensity for Z100, but when placed in bulk, there was evidence of incomplete composite polymerisation near the cavity floor, especially with the low intensity curing light. Cohesive failure of the deep resin composite and gap formation were a frequent finding with the high-intensity light curing. The least leakage for Z100 was achieved with a thin layer on flat dentin. In contrast, the chemically-activated composite performed well in bulk when the surface of the restoration was freely exposed, but badly when constrained by the glass matrix. CONCLUSION: Restoration setting stress is critical in the microscopic integrity of the adhesive bond to dentin.

Bisphenol A-Glycidyl Methacrylate↗

PubMed1999

Intermittent loading of teeth restored using quartz fiber, carbon-quartz fiber, and zirconium dioxide ceramic root canal posts.

PURPOSE: The purpose of the investigation was to compare the performances of teeth restored with quartz fiber, carbon-quartz fiber, and zirconium-dioxide posts covered with all-ceramic crowns when subjected to a cyclic loading test performed in a wet environment. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Forty single-rooted human lower premolars having similar dimensions were endodontically treated and mounted in acrylic resin blocks with a simulated periodontal ligament. The teeth were divided into three experimental groups and one control group. Post holes 8 mm long were prepared in the roots of the experimental groups in which quartz fiber, carbon-quartz fiber, and zirconium dioxide posts were cemented. In the control group, no posts were used. The crown buildup was made with composite resin. The teeth were covered with all-ceramic crowns and intermittently loaded at an angle of 45 degrees to the long axis of the tooth at a frequency of two loads per second. RESULTS: Only one failure (root fracture + post fracture) was observed in each of the fiber post groups, while in the zirconium dioxide post group, six failures were observed (one crown fracture and 5 root fractures + post fractures). The Kaplan-Meier analysis of the three experimental groups showed that the survival rate of zirconium dioxide posts was significantly lower than that of both types of fiber post. All the experimental groups showed a survival rate higher than that of the control group. CONCLUSION: Fiber posts reduced to a minimum the risk of root fractures of teeth restored with composite cores and Empress crowns under the present experimental conditions (intermittent loading in a wet environment).

Aluminum Silicates↗

PubMed1998

A new technique for the controlled removal of mottled enamel: measurement of enamel loss.

AIM: To describe and investigate a simple, effective new method for controlled removal of unsightly, malformed surface enamel. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: 22 mottled incisor teeth were chosen from a group of 12 patients, aged 9-15 years. One half of the labial surface of the tooth was covered with a layer of unfilled bis-GMA resin so that it remained unaffected by the procedure. The other half was treated by etching the enamel with 35% phosphoric acid for 30 seconds, washing and drying. The frosted, etched enamel was removed with a composite finishing bur (Jet 7901) running dry in an air turbine, until a shiny enamel surface reappeared. The enamel was then smoothed with a pumice and water slurry in a slow-rotating rubber prophylaxis cup. The bis-GMA resin was peeled off, and an elastomeric impression of the tooth (now with one half of its labial surface treated, and the other untreated) was taken. The treatment of the remainder of the labial aspect was then completed. The thickness of the mid-labial enamel removed was measured directly from the impression by surface imaging, using a confocal microscope. RESULTS: The mean thickness of enamel removed was 164 microns (SD +/- 85 microns). CONCLUSIONS: This technique results in equivalent amounts of enamel removal to that claimed for other more complex and time-consuming methods.

Acid Etching, Dental↗

PubMed1998

Water sorption in resin-modified glass-ionomer cements: an in vitro comparison with other materials.

The pattern of water uptake into a polyacid-modified composite resin (compomer), Dyract (D), was assessed using gravimetric analysis and tritiated water absorption. The results were compared with a resin composite, Herculite (H), a resin-modified glass-ionomer, Fuji II LC (FL), and a conventional glass-ionomer, Fuji II (F). Samples were stored in tritiated water for periods varying between 6 h and 6 months. The resulting change in gravimetric weight and dimensions was recorded. The tritiated water content was then assessed using liquid scintillation counting and this was compared to the gravimetric changes. The inherent water content of each material was also established. D and H showed a slow steady net uptake to 3% and 1.3% weight by volume (WV) respectively at 6 months. FL showed a rapid uptake reaching 8.9% WV at 7 days and 9.3% WV at 6 months. F showed a steady, less dramatic water uptake reaching 5.3% WV by 6 months. For the glass-ionomer materials, values for gravimetric water uptake and tritium release differed due to the ongoing acid base reaction and an increase in firmly bound water. This phenomenon was noted in D suggesting evidence of a similar reaction in this material.

Absorption↗

PubMed1998

Confocal microscopic observation of structural changes in glass-ionomer cements and tooth interfaces.

This study aimed to develop techniques to allow dynamic imaging of a cavity before, during and after placement of glass-ionomer restorative materials. Cavities were cut in recently extracted third molars and the teeth longitudinally sectioned. Each hemisected tooth surface was placed in green modelling compound at 90 to the optical axis of the microscope. The cavity surface was imaged using a video rate confocal microscope in conjunction with an internally focusable microscope objective. The sample on the stage was pushed up to the objective lens which 'clamped' the cover glass onto it. Water, glycerine or oil was placed below the coverglass, with oil above. Internal tooth structures were imaged by changing the internal focus of the objective. The restorative material was then placed into the cavity. Video images were stored either onto video tape or digitally, using a frame grabber, computer and mass memory storage. Software controls produced time-lapse recordings of the interface over time. Preliminary experiments have examined the placement and early maturation of conventional glass-ionomer cements and a syringeable resin-modified glass-ionomer cement. Initial contact of the cement matrix and glass particles was visible as the plastic material rolled past the enamel and dentine, before making a bond. Evidence for water movement from the dentine into the cement has also been seen. After curing, the early dimensional changes in the cements due to water flux were apparent using the time-lapse facility. This new technique enables examination of developing tooth/restoration interfaces and the tracking of movement in materials.

Dental Caries↗