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Biomedical subjects

W G Darling

Publications and source records attributed to W G Darling.

At least 19 recordsLinked to original sources
PubMed2001

A coordinate system for visual motion perception.

The purpose of this research was to determine the reference axes used by the visual system to specify direction of motion of objects by the visual system at the perceptual level. Ten young adults aligned motion of a moving luminous dot on a computer display to body-fixed and external vertical and horizontal plane axes while operating in a dark room. Accuracy of aligning dot motion to earth-fixed vertical, a displayed luminous line (external visual axis) of varied orientations, and head and trunk longitudinal axes was tested in one experiment with the display in the vertical frontal plane. In a second experiment, dot motion was aligned to head and trunk anterior/posterior (A-P) axes and to an external visual axis presented on a horizontal computer screen. Head and trunk orientations were varied in the frontal plane (left/right tilt) when testing vertical plane axes and by rotation of the head and/or trunk about a vertical axis when testing horizontal plane axes. Perceptual errors were lowest when aligning to earth-fixed vertical in the vertical plane and to an external oblique line in the horizontal plane when head and trunk orientations were varied. Perceptions of horizontal plane motion direction were accurate relative to the trunk-fixed A-P axis when only head orientation was varied, but large errors were made when trunk orientation was varied. Proprioceptive influences on visual perceptions of motion direction were shown by a dependence of perceptual errors on trunk and neck orientations when aligning to all axes. Furthermore, when aligning motion to an external line, the errors depended on orientation of the line in addition to trunk and neck orientations, but not when aligning to intrinsic axes or earth-fixed vertical in the presence of an external line. We conclude that the visual motion system defines direction relative to earth-fixed vertical and an external horizontal reference axis when available. The trunk-fixed A-P axis can be used to accurately define motion direction when operating without an external reference if a neutral trunk orientation is maintained.

Adult↗
PubMed2001

Disordered sensorimotor transformations for reaching following posterior cortical lesions.

Preparation for reaches to visual targets depends on sensorimotor transformations (SMT) between target and limb coordinate systems. To examine neural substrates for SMT, we studied 19 individuals with focal lesions of the visual association cortices and white matter and 11 control subjects without brain lesions. SMT were assessed by measuring accuracy of reaches to remembered locations of visually presented targets. Results showed abnormally large SMT errors in all individuals with inferior parietal lobule (IPL) lesions and some subjects with lesions of the temporo-occipital regions and in occipital area 19. Types of abnormal errors (direction or distance) varied between subjects with similar lesions, e.g. IPL. Patterns of abnormality included dissociations of distance and direction errors and of constant and variable errors. These findings are compatible with the hypothesis of different systems for guiding distance and direction of reaches distributed among structures in superior and inferior visual association cortex.

Adult↗
PubMed2001

Developmental lesions of visual cortex influence control of reaching.

We examined visually guided reaching movements in a young adult (EW) who had extensive bilateral lesions in the visual cortex since birth. EW lacked a right occipital lobe and ventral portions of the left and had poor visual acuity (3/400), yet could point to visual targets as quickly as 9 controls with visual cortex lesions acquired in adulthood and 4 adults without neurological disease. However, EW's endpoint variability and hand movement path curvature were much greater, especially for left hand movements, in concert with large sensorimotor transformation errors. Experimental reduction of acuity (to 3/240 or worse) in the normal controls produced symmetric increases in endpoint variability but did not change hand path curvature, indicating that EW's impaired movements were not due to poor vision alone. Results suggest that visual cortex in early life supports the development of lifelong neural mechanisms for the planning and control of reaching movements.

Adult↗
PubMed2001

Aerial somersault performance under three visual conditions.

Experiments were designed to examine the visual contributions to performance of back aerial double somersaults by collegiate acrobats. Somersaults were performed on a trampoline under three visual conditions: (a) NORMAL acuity; (b) REDUCED acuity (subjects wore special contacts that blocked light reflected onto the central retina); and (c) NO VISION. Videotaped skill performances were rated by two NCAA judges and digitized for kinematic analyses. Subjects' performance scores were similar in NORMAL and REDUCED conditions and lowest in the NO VISION condition. Control of body movement, indicated by time-to-contact, was most variable in the NO VISION condition. Profiles of angular head and neck velocity revealed that when subjects could see, they slowed their heads prior to touchdown in time to process optical flow information and prepare for landing. There was not always enough time to process vision associated with object identification and prepare for touchdown. It was concluded that collegiate acrobats do not need to identify objects for their best back aerial double somersault performance.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2000

Gaze direction effects on perceptions of upper limb kinesthetic coordinate system axes.

The effects of varying gaze direction on perceptions of the upper limb kinesthetic coordinate system axes and of the median plane location were studied in nine subjects with no history of neuromuscular disorders. In two experiments, six subjects aligned the unseen forearm to the trunk-fixed anterior-posterior (a/p) axis and earth-fixed vertical while gazing at different visual targets using either head or eye motion to vary gaze direction in different conditions. Effects of support of the upper limb on perceptual errors were also tested in different conditions. Absolute constant errors and variable errors associated with forearm alignment to the trunk-fixed a/p axis and earth-fixed vertical were similar for different gaze directions whether the head or eyes were moved to control gaze direction. Such errors were decreased by support of the upper limb when aligning to the vertical but not when aligning to the a/p axis. Regression analysis showed that single trial errors in individual subjects were poorly correlated with gaze direction, but showed a dependence on shoulder angles for alignment to both axes. Thus, changes in position of the head and eyes do not influence perceptions of upper limb kinesthetic coordinate system axes. However, dependence of the errors on arm configuration suggests that such perceptions are generated from sensations of shoulder and elbow joint angle information. In a third experiment, perceptions of median plane location were tested by instructing four subjects to place the unseen right index fingertip directly in front of the sternum either by motion of the straight arm at the shoulder or by elbow flexion/extension with shoulder angle varied. Gaze angles were varied to the right and left by 0.5 radians to determine effects of gaze direction on such perceptions. These tasks were also carried out with subjects blind-folded and head orientation varied to test for effects of head orientation on perceptions of median plane location. Constant and variable errors for fingertip placement relative to the sternum were not affected by variations in gaze direction or head orientation. Thus, the perceived position of the trunk-fixed median plane is not altered by varying gaze direction. The implications of these results for mechanisms underlying kinesthetic perceptions and their potential roles in programming of upper limb movements to visual targets are discussed.

Adult↗
PubMed1999

Kinesthetic perceptions of earth- and body-fixed axes.

The major purpose of this research was to determine whether kinesthetic/proprioceptive perceptions of the earth-fixed vertical axis are more accurate than perceptions of intrinsic axes. In one experiment, accuracy of alignment of the forearm to earth-fixed vertical and head- and trunk-longitudinal axes by seven blindfolded subjects was compared in four tasks: (1) Earth-Arm--arm (humerus) orientation was manipulated by the experimenter; subjects aligned the forearm parallel to the vertical axis, which was also aligned with the head and trunk longitudinal axis; (2) Head--head, trunk, and upper-limb orientations were manipulated by the experimenter, subjects aligned the forearm parallel to the longitudinal axis of the head using only elbow flexion/extension and shoulder internal/external rotation; (3) Trunk--same as (2), except that subjects aligned the forearm parallel to the trunk-longitudinal axis; (4) Earth--same as (2), except that subjects aligned the forearm parallel to the earth-fixed vertical. Head, trunk, and gravitational axes were never parallel in tasks 2, 3, and 4 so that subjects could not simultaneously match their forearm to all three axes. The results showed that the errors for alignment of the forearm with the earth-fixed vertical were lower than for the trunk- and head-longitudinal axes. Furthermore, errors in the Earth condition were less dependent on alterations of the head and trunk orientation than in the Head and Trunk conditions. These data strongly suggest that the earth-fixed vertical is used as one axis for the kinesthetic sensory coordinate system that specifies upper-limb orientation at the perceptual level. We also examined the effects of varying gravitational torques at the elbow and shoulder on the accuracy of forearm alignment to earth-fixed axes. Adding a 450 g load to the forearm to increase gravitational torques when the forearm is not vertical did not improve the accuracy of forearm alignment with the vertical. Furthermore, adding small, variably sized loads (between which the subjects could not distinguish at the perceptual level) to the forearm just proximal to the wrist produced similar errors in aligning the forearm with the vertical and horizontal. Forearm-positioning errors were not correlated with the size of the load, as would be expected if gravitational torques affected forearm-position sense. We conclude that gravitational torques exerted about the shoulder and elbow do not make significant contributions to sensing forearm-orientation relative to earth-fixed axes when the upper-limb segments are not constrained by external supports.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1999

The maximum shortening velocity of muscle should be scaled with activation.

The purpose of this study was to determine whether the maximum shortening velocity (Vmax) in Hill's mechanical model (A. V. Hill. Proc. R. Soc. London Ser. B. 126: 136-195, 1938) should be scaled with activation, measured as a fraction of the maximum isometric force (Fmax). By using the quick-release method, force-velocity (F-V) relationships of the wrist flexors were gathered at five different activation levels (20-100% of maximum at intervals of 20%) from four subjects. The F-V data at different activation levels can be fitted remarkably well with Hill's characteristic equation. In general, the shortening velocity decreases with activation. With the assumption of nonlinear relationships between Hill constants and activation level, a scaled Vmax model was developed. When the F-V curves for submaximal activation were forced to converge at the Vmax obtained with maximum activation (constant Vmax model), there were drastic changes in the shape of the curves. The differences in Vmax values generated by the scaled and constant Vmax models were statistically significant. These results suggest that, when a Hill-type model is used in musculoskeletal modeling, the Vmax should be scaled with activation.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1997

Visual perceptions of vertical and intrinsic longitudinal axes.

The purpose of these experiments was to investigate whether visual perceptions of the earth-fixed vertical axis are more accurate than those of intrinsic body-fixed axes. In one experiment, nine neurologically normal young adult subjects' abilities to position a luminescent rod vertically or parallel to the longitudinal axis of the head or trunk were studied in four conditions: (1) earth-fixed--subjects stood erect with the head aligned to the trunk and visually aligned a hand-held rod to vertical; (2) earth--subjects aligned the rod to vertical as in 1, but the orientations of the head and trunk were varied in the sagittal and frontal planes on each trial; (3) head--frontal and/or sagittal plane orientation of the subject's head was varied on each trial and the rod was aligned parallel to the longitudinal axis of the head; (4) trunk--frontal and/or sagittal plane orientation of the subject's trunk was varied on each trial and the rod was aligned parallel to the longitudinal axis of the trunk. Note that in conditions 2, 3, and 4 the head and trunk were never aligned with each other. Also, each condition was carried out in normal light and in complete darkness. Perceptual errors were measured in both the frontal and the sagittal planes. The results showed that the variable errors were significantly lower when subjects aligned the rod to vertical rather than to the longitudinal axis of the head or trunk. Also, errors were similar in size in the two planes and were unaffected by vision of the surrounding environment. In a second experiment, subjects were seated and controlled the position of a luminescent rod held by a robot. They aligned the rod either to the longitudinal axis of their head or to the vertical in complete darkness, under three conditions similar to those described above: (1) earth-fixed, (2) earth, and (3) head. There was no possibility of use of kinesthetic information for controlling rod position in this experiment as in the first experiment. The results were similar to those of the first experiment, as subjects aligned the rod more accurately to vertical than to the longitudinal axis of the head. These results show convincingly that visual perceptions of earth-fixed vertical are more accurate than perceptions of intrinsic axes fixed to the head or trunk.

Adult↗
PubMed1997

Kinesthetic perceptions of intrinsic anterior-posterior axes.

The purpose of this research was to investigate whether kinesthetic and proprioceptive perceptions of "straight ahead" were defined by a head- or trunk-fixed axis. Subjects were instructed to align the forearm with the head or trunk anterior-posterior (a/p) axis by elbow flexion or extension in the horizontal plane in five different conditions. In each condition the experimenter varied initial elbow and shoulder horizontal flexion or extension angles and head and/or trunk orientation (by rotation about a vertical axis) on each trial before the subject moved the forearm to align it with the head or trunk axis. The upper limb motion was voluntarily constrained to the horizontal plane through the shoulder. Variable errors were significantly lower when subjects aligned the forearm to the trunk-fixed a/p axis. Furthermore, the perceptual errors showed a greater dependence on body segment orientations when the forearm was aligned to the head axis than to the trunk axis. We conclude that the trunk a/p axis is preferred to the head a/p axis for specifying upper limb segment orientations in the horizontal plane at the kinesthetic perceptual level.

Adult↗
PubMed1997

Mechanical characteristics of knee extension exercises performed on an isokinetic dynamometer.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate selected mechanical characteristics of knee extension exercises performed on a LIDO Active Isokinetic System. A female subject performed two repetitions of maximal effort knee extension at 16 different preset angular velocities (PAVs). The gravitational and inertial effects were included in the computation of the resultant knee torque. For each repetition, the knee flexion angle, the angular velocity and acceleration of the shank, and the knee torque throughout the range of motion were computed. The shank angular acceleration values indicated that if the inertial effect is not considered the knee torque will be underestimated in the initial phase and errors in knee torque up to about 6 N.m can be expected for the rest of the repetition. The durations when the shank angular velocity was within +/- 5% and +/- 10% of PAV (expressed as percentages of the repetition time) were found to decrease with increasing PAV. The difference between PAV and shank angular velocity at the instant of peak torque also increased with increasing PAV. The results demonstrate the limitations that may exist in an isokinetic dynamometers.

Adult↗
PubMed1996

Visual perceptions of head-fixed and trunk-fixed anterior/posterior axes.

The purpose of the present experiment was to determine the preferred visual "straight ahead" or anterior/posterior (a/p) axis at the perceptual level. The ability of 12 neurologically normal, young adult subjects to position a rod parallel to the head and trunk a/p axes while viewing eccentrically located visual targets were studied under six conditions: 1. fixed-subjects stood erect with the head aligned to the trunk and viewed a central target while visually aligning a hand-held rod to the head and trunk a/p axis. 2. eyes-subjects moved only their eyes to view eccentric targets and aligned the rod to the head and trunk a/p axis. 3. head-trunk-subjects viewed the eccentric targets by rotating the head about a vertical axis and aligned the rod to the trunk a/p axis. 4. head-head-subjects viewed the targets as in 3 and positioned the rod parallel to the head a/p axis. 5. trunk-head-subjects viewed the targets by rotating the trunk and head as a unit about the vertical axis and aligned the rod parallel to the head a/p axis (note that the head and trunk a/p axes were misaligned by the experimenter prior to target viewing). 6. trunk-trunk-subjects viewed targets as in 5 and positioned the rod parallel to the trunk a/p axis. Subjects performed 25-35 consecutive trials within each condition. Perceptual errors were similar for aligning the rod to the trunk and head a/p axes; however, moving the trunk produced much larger constant and variable perceptual errors than moving the head. In a second experiment, four subjects controlled the position of a lighted rod held by a robot arm in complete darkness. They were instructed to align the rod to either the head or trunk a/p axis under conditions similar to the fixed, head-trunk, and head-head tasks described above. Perceptual errors were much larger when aligning the rod to the head a/p axis than to trunk a/p axis when the head was moved. This shows that the trunk a/p axis is clearly preferred at the perceptual level when visual background cues are not present. These data strongly suggest that the visual coordinate system uses a trunk-fixed a/p axis to define the subjective straight-ahead direction and right/left position of a target. Implications of these findings for sensorimotor transformations in control of upper limb movements to visual targets are discussed.

Adult↗
PubMed1995

Perception of arm orientation in three-dimensional space.

The purpose of this investigation was to determine the preferred coordinate system for perception of arm (humerus) orientation in three-dimensional space. Perception of arm orientation relative to trunk-fixed versus earth-fixed axes were compared in seven human subjects. The experimenter first moved the subject's trunk and arm into a target configuration (in which the arm's orientation relative to the trunk and/or earth was perceived and memorized by the subject) and then moved the trunk and arm to a new configuration. The blindfolded subject then attempted to reproduce the target orientation of their arm relative to either the trunk (i.e., reproduce shoulder angles--intrinsic kinesthetic coordinate system) or earth-fixed axes (extrinsic kinesthetic coordinate system). Perceptual errors were similar for both shoulder (arm relative to trunk) and extrinsic (arm relative to earth) angles. However, elevation angles were perceived with greater accuracy than yaw angles in the two coordinate systems. Also, perceptual errors for arm yaw angles in the extrinsic kinesthetic coordinate system task were better predicted from changes in trunk orientation than the errors for other angles. Furthermore, four subjects matched arm yaw angle relative to the trunk-fixed axis more accurately than to the earth-fixed axis in the extrinsic coordinate system task. These results suggests a bias toward perception of yaw angles relative to trunk-fixed axes (i.e., in an intrinsic coordinate system). These data suggest that the preferred coordinate system for kinesthetic perception of arm orientation is probably fixed in the trunk.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Adult↗
PubMed1994

Coordination of index finger movements.

The purpose of this investigation was to describe the patterns of coordination among the joint motions of the index finger, and among the EMGs of index finger muscles. Index finger movements involving all three joints were varied in speed and direction. Joint motions were recorded along with fine-wire EMG from all the muscles that insert into the index finger. We observed nearly linear relationships for angular position between the two interphalangeal (IP) joints, and between the metacarpophalangeal (MP) and proximal IP (PIP) joints regardless of movement, speed and direction. The activities of the extrinsic flexors were of similar magnitude and were highly correlated when they acted as agonists but were poorly correlated when they acted as antagonists to the movement. Extrinsic extensor muscles behaved in this way also. The activation patterns of the intrinsic musculature correlated weakly except for extension movements voluntarily limited to the IP joints. We conclude that the highly coordinated action of the extrinsic flexors during flexion contribute importantly to the linked motions of the IP joints in part because these muscles span two or all the three index finger joints. Hence, interjoint movement patterns appear not to arise solely from restraints imposed by passive tissues, especially for fast flexion movements. The weakly correlated intrinsic muscle activity does not uncouple the flexion motions at the PIP and DIP joints because these muscles exert extensor torques at both IP joints. However, the actions of the intrinsic muscles are necessary for stabilizing the MP joint in flexion postures during IP motion and in producing motions voluntarily limited to the MP joint.

Electromyography↗
PubMed1993

Variations in soleus H-reflexes as a function of plantarflexion torque in man.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of the levels of voluntary isometric contraction on the Hoffman reflex in human soleus and medial gastrocnemius (MG) muscles. H-reflexes were recorded in sixteen healthy adults at each of 16 isometric plantarflexion (pf) torque levels ranging from 0-100% of their maximum voluntary isometric contraction (MVC) and were elicited at two intensities of stimulation: (i) supramaximal for M-response and (ii) a submaximal stimulus that produced an H-reflex in soleus that was 50% of maximum H-reflex at rest. The H-reflex peak-to-peak amplitudes were linearly related to pf torque levels ranging from 0 to 50% MVC at both supramaximal and submaximal stimulus intensities. The slope of this relationship was higher for the submaximal stimulation. Beyond 60% of MVC, the soleus H-reflex amplitude showed no further increase with increasing pf torque for both stimulus intensities. Thus, beyond 50-60% of MVC the soleus H-reflex does not provide an accurate measure of soleus motor neuron pool excitability. Further experimental results showed that the H-reflex amplitude at a given torque level depended on whether torque was increasing or decreasing. When torque was increasing, the amplitude of the H-reflex was larger than when the same torque was maintained at a constant level. In contrast, if the torque was decreasing, amplitude of the reflex was lower than when torque was increasing. Therefore, variations in H-reflex amplitudes at a given torque level may be more closely correlated to the direction of the ongoing contraction than to the actual muscle force being produced at the time the H-reflex is elicited.

Adult↗
PubMed1993

Transformations between visual and kinesthetic coordinate systems in reaches to remembered object locations and orientations.

The abilities of human subjects to perform reach and grasp movements to remembered locations/orientations of a cylindrical object were studied under four conditions: (1) visual presentation of the object-reach with vision allowed; (2) visual presentation-reach while blindfolded; (3) kinesthetic presentation of the object-reach while blindfolded and (4) kinesthetic presentation-reach with vision. The results showed that subjects were very accurate in locating the object in the purely kinesthetic condition and that directional errors were low in all four conditions; but, predictable errors in reach distance occurred in conditions 1,2, and 4. The pattern of these distance errors was similar to that identified in previous research using a pointing task to a small target (i.e., overshoots of close targets, undershoots of far targets). The observation that the pattern of distance errors in condition 4 was similar to that of conditions 1 and 2 suggests that subjects transform kinesthetically defined hand locations into a visual coordinate system when vision is available during upper limb motion to a remembered kinesthetic target. The differences in orientation of the upper limb between target and reach positions in condition 3 were similar in magnitude to the errors associated with kinesthetic perceptions of arm and hand orientations in three-dimensional space reported in previous studies. However, fingertip location was specified with greater accuracy than the orientation of upper limb segments. This was apparently accomplished by compensation of variations in shoulder (arm) angles with oppositely directed variations in elbow joint angles. Subjects were also able to transform visually perceived object orientation into an appropriate hand orientation for grasp, as indicated by the relation between hand roll angle and object orientation (elevation angle). The implications of these results for control of upper limb motion to external targets are discussed.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1991

Is there a preferred coordinate system for perception of hand orientation in three-dimensional space?

The purpose of this experiment was to determine the preferred coordinate system for representation of hand orientation in 3-dimensional space. The ability of human subjects to perceive angles of the hand in 3-dimensional space (elevation, yaw, roll angles-extrinsic coordinate system) was compared to their ability to perceive hand angles relative to the proximal upper limb segments (wrist joint angles, forearm pronation-intrinsic coordinate system). With eyes closed, subjects performed a matching task in which the experimenter positioned the left arm, forearm and hand and the right arm and forearm. Subjects were then told to match an angle in one of the two coordinate systems by moving only the right hand at the wrist or the forearm as in pronation or roll matching. Absolute constant error (ACE), variable error (VE) and normalized variable error (NVE-normalized to tested range of motion) of matching were quantified for each subject for each of the six angles matched. It was hypothesized that matching angles in a preferred coordinate system would be associated with lower ACE, VE and NVE. Overall, ACE and VE were lower for matching hand angles in the intrinsic coordinate system. This suggests that the preferred coordinate system involved specification of hand angles relative to forearm and arm angles (joint angles) rather than the hand angles relative to axes external to the upper limb. However, matching of pronation angles was associated with larger VE and NVE than roll angle matching. There were no significant differences in ACE between pronation and roll matching. In a second experiment subjects with their forearms constrained at different elevations matched hand elevation and wrist flexion angles. Thus, errors in matching the angles in the non-preferred coordinate system were predictable if the subjects were biased toward matching angles in the preferred coordinate system. Trends in the data suggested that subjects preferred matching hand elevation angles but these trends were not consistent within or between subjects. Thus a preferred intrinsic coordinate system for wrist flexion matching was not observed in this experiment. We suggest that matching angles when proximal limb segments are constrained is a simpler task for the subjects (VE lower than in the first experiment) and may bias the matching toward the extrinsic coordinate system. Thus, hand orientation in 3-dimensional space may be perceived as follows: wrist flexion and abduction angles together with forearm elevation and yaw are used to specify hand elevation and yaw; these together with hand roll angle, completely specify the hand angle in 3-dimensional space.

Adult↗
PubMed1991

Perception of forearm angles in 3-dimensional space.

The purpose of this study was to determine a preferred coordinate system for representation of forearm orientation in 3-dimensional space. In one experiment, the ability of human subjects to perceive angles of the forearm in 3-dimensional space (forearm elevation and yaw--extrinsic coordinate system) was compared to their ability to perceive elbow joint angle (intrinsic coordinate system). While blindfolded, subjects performed an angle reproduction task in which the experimenter first positioned the upper limb in a reference trial. This was followed, after movement of the subject's entire upper limb to a different position, by an attempt to reproduce or match a criterior angle of the reference trial by motion of the forearm in elbow flexion or extension only. Note that matching of the criterion forearm angle in the new upper limb position could not be accomplished by reproducing the entire reference upper limb position, but only by angular motion at the elbow. Matching of all 3 criterion angles was accomplished with about equal accuracy in terms of absolute constant errors and variable errors. Correlation analysis of the perceptual errors showed that forearm elevation and elbow angle perception errors were not biased but that forearm yaw angle matching showed a bias toward elbow angle matching in 7 of 9 subjects. That is errors in forearm yaw perception were attributed to a tendency toward a preferred intrinsic coordinate system for perception of forearm orientation. These results show that subjects can accurately perceive angles in both extrinsic and intrinsic coordinate systems in 3-dimensional space. Thus, these data conflict with previous reports of highly inaccurate perception of elbow joint angles in comparison to perception of forearm elevation. In an attempt to resolve this conflict with previous results, a second experiment was carried out in which perception of forearm elevation and elbow joint angles with the forearm motion constrained to a vertical plane. Results of this experiment showed that during a two-limb elbow angle matching task, four of five subjects exhibited a clear bias toward forearm elevation angle. During a one-limb angle reproduction task only two of five subjects exhibited such a bias. Perception of elevation angles show little bias toward elbow angle matching.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Adult↗