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W J Heitler

Publications and source records attributed to W J Heitler.

At least 19 recordsLinked to original sources
PubMed1998

Effect of temperature on a voltage-sensitive electrical synapse in crayfish.

The effects of temperature on transmission through the voltage-sensitive giant motor synapse (GMS) were investigated in crayfish both experimentally and in computer simulation. The GMS is part of the fast reflex escape pathway of the crayfish and mediates activation from the lateral giant (LG) command neurone to the motor giant (MoG) flexor motoneurone. The investigation was motivated by an apparent mismatch between the temperature sensitivity of the activation time constant of the GMS, with a Q10 reported to be close to 11, and that of the active membrane properties of LG and MoG, which are thought to have Q10 values close to 3. Our initial hypothesis was that at cold temperatures the very slow activation of the GMS conductance would reduce the effectiveness of transmission compared with higher temperatures. However, the reverse was found to be the case. Effective transmission through the GMS was reliable at low temperatures, but failed at an upper temperature limit that varied between 12 degrees C and 25 degrees C in isolated nerve cord preparations. The upper limit was extended above 30 degrees C in semi-intact preparations where the GMS was less disturbed by dissection. The results of experiments and simulations both indicate that transmission becomes more reliable at low temperatures because the longer-duration presynaptic spikes are able to drive more current through the GMS into the MoG, which is more excitable at low temperatures. Conversely, effective transmission is difficult at high temperatures because the transfer of charge through the GMS is reduced and because the input resistance of MoG is lowered as its current threshold is increased. The effect of the high Q10 of the GMS activation is to help preserve effective transmission through the synapse at high temperatures and so extend the temperature range for effective operation of the escape circuit.

Action Potentials↗
PubMed1997

The concerted activity in parallel proprioceptive pathways controls the initiation of co-activation in the locust kick motor programme.

To jump and kick the locust uses a catapult mechanism implemented by a three-stage motor programme: initial flexion of the hind tibiae, co-activation of the antagonist flexor and extensor tibiae motor neurons and trigger inhibition of the flexor motorneurons. The transition from stage 1 to stage 2 thus involves a switch from the normal alternate activation to co-activation of the antagonist tibrae motorneurons. However, co-activation has never been observed when the central nervous system has been isolated from the leg. This led us to investigate the possibility that the transition from stage 1 to stage 2 is controlled by a proprioceptive signal. In the first set of experiments intracellular recordings were made in the flexor and extensor motorneurons while the position of the tendon of the femoral chordotonal organ (FCO), which signals tibial position and movement, was experimentally controlled. In these heavily dissected preparations, stretch of the FCO tendon (signalling tibial flexion) was a necessary condition for co-activation. However, in minimally dissected preparations (in which merely EMG recordings were made), we found that co-activation occurred even when the FCO was signalling tibial extension, suggesting the involvement of other proprioceptors. A series of experiments were then conducted on minimally dissected preparations to determine the relative contributions of each of the three main hind leg proprioceptors which might signal tibial flexion: the FCO, the lump receptor and Brünners organ. When all three proprioceptors were intact the chance of evoking co-activation was largest, when all three were eliminated co-activation could no longer be evoked, irrespective of the level of arousal. Various combinations of partial de-afferentation showed that the FCO plays the major role, with the lump receptor and Bünners organ playing significant, but progressively less important, roles. We conclude that the three receptors act together as a permissive proprioceptive gate for the kick and jump motor programme, but with a hierarchy of the strengths of their effectiveness.

Animals↗
PubMed1996

Neurosim.

Explore the source record for details and available documents.

Neurophysiology↗
PubMed1996

A simple method for the removal of mains interference from pre-recorded electrophysiological data.

MOTIVATION: A common problem with electrophysiological recording is the contamination of the signal of interest with interference generated at mains frequency. Standard filtering techniques are often inappropriate because the signal of interest has components spectrally close to the mains frequency. RESULTS: A digital subtraction method is described for removing mains frequency interference from pre-recorded data. The data are first digitized with a sample rate that is some direct multiple of mains frequency. Next a 20 ms (for UK mains frequency) data set is constructed containing the average interference pattern. This is subtracted from each 20 ms window of the raw data. Finally, the mean value of the interference is added back to the raw data to restore the DC component. AVAILABILITY: A Windows program which implements the method for the EGAA data acquisition system (R.C.Electronics, Santa Barbara, CA) is available from the author. CONTACT: wjh@st-andrews.ac.uk

Action Potentials↗
PubMed1995

Quasi-reversible photo-axotomy used to investigate the role of extensor muscle tension in controlling the kick motor programme of grasshoppers.

The jump and kick of the grasshopper are behaviours which are potentially critical for the survival of the animal, and whose maximal performance depends upon optimizing the rate and level of tension development in the extensor tibiae muscle of the hind legs. In experimental conditions extensor tension control can be reduced to a single motoneuron, the fast extensor tibiae (FETi). The axon of FETi can be cut using dye-mediated laser photoaxotomy without damaging the central or peripheral portions of that neuron or any other neuron innervating the leg. The axotomy can be functionally reversed (i.e. the cut axon repaired) by an electronic axonal bypass which detects FETi spikes on the proximal side of the cut and stimulates the axon on the distal side of the cut. In this way motor spikes can either be allowed to reach the muscle or prevented from doing so (by switching the bypass on or off), and the motor programmes produced with and without extensor tension can be compared. The jump and kick are normally produced by a three-stage motor programme: (i) initial flexion brings the tibia into the fully flexed position; (ii) coactivation of extensor and flexor muscles allows the extensor muscle to develop maximal tension almost isometrically, while the simultaneous contraction of the flexor muscle holds the tibia flexed; (iii) sudden trigger inhibition of the flexor system (motoneurons and muscle) releases the tibia and allows the behaviour to be expressed. The grasshopper can produce fictive kicks with motor programmes which show each of these three major structural features of a normal kick, but without any extensor tension whatsoever. There is no significant difference in the frequency of FETi spikes, the duration of coactivation or the maximum depolarization of the flexor motoneurons between fictive and quasi-normal (i.e. reversed axotomy) kicks. The trigger inhibition of flexor motoneurons is shallower in fictive than in quasi-normal kicks. The significance of this is discussed in relation to the activity of the interneuron M, which is known to mediate trigger inhibition onto FITi motoneurons. There are two main conclusions from this study. First, the CNS does not need feedback from ETi muscle tension in order to produce the three-stage motor programme of the kick (and, by implication, the jump). Second, the CNS does not adjust the frequency or duration of FETi activity in response to unexpected changes in ETi tension. ETi tension appears to be under open-loop control in the kick motor programme.

Animals↗
PubMed1992

Two classes of vesicles are present and change in relative proportion during post-embryonic development of rectifying electrical synapses in the crayfish.

The size and shape of vesicles at junctional appositions of the rectifying electrical synapses between the medial giant fibre and motor giant neurone of the crayfish were measured during the first 2 months after hatching. Summed data over this period reveal a bimodal distribution in vesicle diameter. From the day of hatching until about 7 days of age, small vesicles (circa 25 nm diameter) predominate. From day 7 onwards, larger vesicles (circa 55 nm diameter) occur in increasing numbers, until at day 56 they constitute about 85% of the population at any one junctional apposition. At intermediate ages (day 7-28) individual junctional appositions may show the same bimodal distribution in size as does the age group as a whole, indicating that large and small vesicles occur together at the same junction. The larger vesicles are mainly circular, while the small vesicles are pleomorphic, with shapes ranging from almost circular down to a shape factor of about 0.6.

Aging↗
PubMed1992

Structural and functional post-embryonic development of a non-rectifying electrical synapse in the crayfish.

The post-embryonic development of the non-rectifying septate synapse between homologous lateral giant (LG) fibre segments has been investigated using electron microscopy and electrophysiology. In adults, the LG-LG synapse is characterized by closely apposed membranes (approximately 4 nm separation) traversed by regularly spaced particles, and large (60-80 nm) spherical vesicles on both sides of the junction. In newly hatched crayfish the junction between lateral giant fibre segments comprises regions of close membrane apposition as seen in the adult along with non-specialized areas of wide (10-15 nm) membrane separation. Vesicles associated with these junctions are small (25-40 nm) and pleomorphic. The number of vesicles is low by comparison with adult junctions; in most sections of hatchling junctions there are normally fewer than five vesicles, although as many as 30 have occasionally been seen. During development the non-specialized areas of wide membrane separation become rare and the vesicle population changes to a mixture of small pleomorphic forms and larger (60-80 nm) spherical ones. However even at two months the number of large spherical vesicles is markedly less than that at the adult synapse, while small pleomorphic vesicles are still abundant. Despite the difference between the adult and hatchling vesicle populations, intracellular recordings have shown that the synapse is fully functional as a non-rectifying electrical junction on hatching and that the intracellular marker Lucifer Yellow can pass between adjacent lateral giant fibre neurons.

Animals↗
PubMed1991

Different types of rectification at electrical synapses made by a single crayfish neurone investigated experimentally and by computer simulation.

The rectification properties of electrical synapses made by the segmental giant (SG) neurone of crayfish (Pacifastacus leniusculus) were investigated. The SG acts as an interneurone, transmitting information from the giant command fibres (GFs) to the abdominal fast flexor (FF) motoneurones. The GF-SG (input) synapses are inwardly-rectifying electrical synapses, while the SG-FF (output) synapses are outwardly rectifying electrical synapses. This implies that a single neurone can make gap junction hemichannels with different rectification properties. The coupling coefficient of these synapses is dependent upon transjunctional potential. There is a standing gradient in resting potential between the GFs, SG and FFs, with the GFs the most hyperpolarized, and the FFs the most depolarized. The gradient thus biases each synapse into the low-conductance state under resting conditions. There is functional double rectification between the bilateral pairs of SGs within a single segment, such that depolarizing membrane potential changes of either SG pass to the other SG with less attenuation than do hyperpolarizing potential changes. Computer simulation suggests that this may result from coupling through the intermediary FF neurones.

Animals↗
PubMed1991

Postembryonic development of rectifying electrical synapses in crayfish: physiology.

In a previous paper we showed that the ultrastructure of the giant fibre to motor giant synapse of crayfish changes in the first few weeks after hatching from having predominantly the appearance of a chemical synapse to having the appearance of an electrical synapse. This is paralleled by a behavioural change from non-giant fibre-mediated to giant fibre-mediated tailflips. In this paper we describe the physiology of the giant fibre to motor giant synapse over this period. We find the following: (1) The giant fibre to motor giant synapse usually transmits spikes 1:1 from the day of hatching. (2) The synapse operates by electrical transmission from the day of hatching, when no connexons are apparent at the ultrastructural level. (3) The synapse has no detectable chemical component, even at an age when the predominant type of junctional apposition has the ultrastructural appearance of a chemical synapse. (4) Inhibitory chemical synapses occur onto the motor giant at the day of hatching, and these show similar physiological characteristics to those which occur onto the motor giant in adults. (5) In some preparations, the giant fibre to motor giant electrical synapse shows rectification similar to that in the adult, but in most cases both depolarizing and hyperpolarizing current injected into the medial giant spreads to the motor giant. (6) Current spread from the medial giant to the motor giant is increased by hyperpolarizing the motor giant neuron, even when medial giant to motor giant transmission is apparently non-rectifying. (7) Both the giant fibre and the motor giant have resting potentials of about -90 mV. There is no standing difference in resting potential as there is in the adult. This may explain the apparent lack of medial giant to motor giant rectification observed in most preparations.

Animals↗
PubMed1991

Photoinactivation of the crayfish segmental giant neuron reveals a direct giant-fiber to fast-flexor connection with a chemical component.

The escape tail flip of the crayfish is "commanded" by 2 sets of giant-fiber (GF) interneurons. In each hemisegment, these drive the motor giant (MoG) abdominal flexor motor-neuron through a monosynaptic electrical connection, but the remaining 8 or 9 fast-flexor (FF) motorneurons receive most of their input via a disynaptic electrical pathway through the segmental giant (SG) neuron. We have investigated a monosynaptic GF-FF pathway, which operates in parallel to the disynaptic GF-SG-FF pathway, by using dye-mediated photoinactivation to remove the SGs from the tail-flip circuit. SG photoinactivation involves an initial broadening of the spike, leading to a long-duration, massively depolarized plateau. This is followed by loss of spike capability, a gradual reduction in the resting potential, and eventual total loss of electrical responsiveness. After bilateral photoinactivation of the SGs, a spike in one set of GFs, the medial giants (MGs), produces little if any effect in FFs in any ganglion. A spike in the other set, the lateral giants (LGs), produces an EPSP in FFs with a declining anterior-to-posterior segmental gradient in amplitude. These differences in LG and MG outputs, which are obscured in the intact circuit by the common MG/LG-SG-FF pathway, give clues to a probable early evolutionary form of the circuit. The LG-FF connection in anterior ganglia has a significant electrical component. However, it also has an apparent monosynaptic chemical component, as revealed by the response to saline containing cadmium ions, and to cooling the preparation. This is the first physiological evidence for chemical output from a crayfish GF.

Animals↗
PubMed1991

Postsynaptic modulation of rectifying electrical synaptic inputs to the LG escape command neuron in crayfish.

The lateral giant (LG) tail-flip escape system of crayfish is organized to provide a massive convergence of mechanosensory inputs onto the LG command neuron through electrical synapses from both mechanosensory afferents and interneurons. We used electrophysiological techniques to show that the connections between three major mechanosensory interneurons and LG rectify, and that their inputs to LG can be reduced by postsynaptic depolarization and increased by postsynaptic hyperpolarization. The mechanosensory afferents and interneurons are excited by sensory nerve shock, and the components of the resulting LG PSP can be similarly modulated by the same postsynaptic potential changes. Because these inputs are all made through electrical synapses, we conclude that they are rectifying connections, as well. To test the physical plausibility of this conclusion, we developed an electrical model of the rectifying connection between a mechanosensory interneuron and LG, and found that it can reproduce all the qualitative features of the orthodromic and antidromic experimental responses. The ability of postsynaptic membrane potential to modulate inputs through rectifying electrical synapses is used in the escape system to enhance LG's relative sensitivity to novel, phasic stimuli. Postsynaptic depolarization of LG produced by earlier inputs "reverse-biases" the rectifying input synapses and reduces their strength relative to times when LG is at rest.

Animals↗
PubMed1990

Anti-GABA antibodies label a subpopulation of chemical synapses which modulate an electrical synapse in crayfish.

Antibodies raised against gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) were used to stain sections from the crayfish abdominal nervous system, and the sections were examined under the electron microscope using a protein-A/gold conjugate secondary label. Sections were taken through the third ganglionic root, and through the interganglionic connective at the base of the third root posterior to the ganglia. The third root contains two very large motor axons, a non-GABAergic excitor (Motor Giant; MoG), and a GABAergic inhibitor (Flexor Inhibitor; FI). Only one of the two large axons stained positively for GABA, confirming that the antibody has high specificity for GABAergic neurones. The MoG is driven by powerful electrical synapses from the giant fibres, but also receives inhibitory chemical synaptic input which can gate the excitatory input. There is no physiological evidence for any other form of chemical input. However, at the ultrastructural level, the MoG is postsynaptic to three types of chemical profiles; SE-type containing round agranular vesicles, SI-type containing pleomorphic vesicles, and SM-type containing a mixture of round agranular and dense-cored vesicles. There is a highly differentiated staining pattern of these three synaptic types. Only the SI-type profiles stain positively with the GABA antibody, while the SE- and SM-type do not show significant staining. This suggests that the MoG can under some circumstances receive chemical input other than GABAergic inhibitory input. These other types of input have yet to be physiologically identified.

Animals↗
PubMed1989

Post-embryonic development of rectifying electrical synapses in the crayfish: ultrastructure.

The post-embryonic development of the rectifying Giant Fibre-Motor Giant (GF-MoG) synapse and the Giant Fibre-Segmental Giant (GF-SG) synapse has been investigated using electron-microscopy. In adults, the MoG and SG neurons make contact with the GFs by sending narrow 'finger-like' processes through the glial and connective tissue sheath surrounding each GF. The junctional region is characterized by closely apposed membranes (approximately 4 nm separation) traversed by regularly spaced connections, and large (60-80 nm) spherical vesicles in the presynaptic fibre. In newly hatched crayfish junctional contact is made over extensive areas of flat membrane apposition, due to the absence of a thick connective sheath around the giant fibres. Initially the junctional region is dominated by contacts which are morphologically indistinguishable from chemical synapses, i.e. 1. The apposed membranes are separated by a cleft of approximately 20-30 nm (an order of magnitude larger than the cleft distance at electrotonic synapses). 2. There is pre- and post-synaptic thickening of the junctional membranes with a dense cytoplasmic material. 3. Small (25-40 nm) pleomorphic vesicles are found on the presynaptic side of the junction, commonly in association with a dense presynaptic bar. Regions of junctional contact displaying the adult electronic-type morphology first appear at approximately one week post-hatching. At this age they are limited in distribution and occupy a central position in the area of contact surrounded by a broad 'chemical-like' annulus. During subsequent development these sites with electrotonic-type morphology grow in relative size, so that the 'chemical-like' sites become compressed towards the edges of the regions of contact. The adult type of morphology, in which the 'chemical-like' regions are vestigial, is achieved approximately two months after hatching.

Animals↗
PubMed1985

Ultrastructure of the phasic stretch receptor in the crayfish abdominal nerve cord.

The ultrastructure of the abdominal ganglionic cord stretch receptor of the crayfish Pacifastacus leniusculus is described. This bilaterally-paired, segmentally-repeating phasic receptor monitors stretch applied to the central nervous system itself. It consists of a connective tissue mass closely applied to the medial margin of each medial giant fibre, into which ramifies a collection of specialized terminal dendrites originating from branches (primary dendrites) of a single axon. The connective tissue consists of an electron-opaque matrix in which are embedded many short, electron-lucent, tubular structures whose lumens are continuous with the matrix. Some filamentous material penetrates the connective tissue from its boundaries, and glial cells are present. The primary dendrites are irregular in size and orientation, and contain many microtubules and much filamentous material. The terminal dendrites are of consistent diameter and longitudinal orientation, containing very regularly-spaced microtubules with no microfilaments. The terminal dendrites contain a well-defined cytoskeletal 'tube' or lamina 6 nm thick, evenly spaced about 25 nm below the plasma membrane and connected to it by filamentous material 5 nm in diameter, which is deposited in rings or helices. This lamina arises just at the point where the primary dendrites gave rise to the terminal dendrites. Its function is not known, but it shows some similarities to the subaxolemmal lamina found in some regions of spike initiation.

Abdomen↗
PubMed1985

Ultrastructure of the segmental giant neuron of crayfish.

The ultrastructure of the crayfish segmental giant (SG) neuron is described, and compared to other identified and unidentified crayfish neurons. The SG was specifically stained by intracellular injection of horseradish peroxidase and is divided into four regions of interest. In the dorsal region, finger-like dendrites of the SG make contact with the through-conducting giant fibres (GF). These contacts are physiologically defined rectifying electrical synapses. They are characterized by the presence of 30-95 nm agranular vesicles in the presynaptic GFs, some postsynaptic density in the SG, and a narrowing of the intermembrane cleft to approximately 5 nm. There is little evidence for connecting cytoplasmic bridges. Unidentified neurons make chemical input with either round or elliptical vesicle types onto SG bottlenecks close to the electrical synapses. Ventral to the GFs, dendritic profiles of the SG make three sorts of contact with unidentified neurons. (a) Regions of close membrane apposition (approximately 5 nm) are presumed to be electrical output synapses, but there are no vesicles such as at the input synapses, and, again, little sign of connecting bridges. (b) Chemical input is received from unidentified presynaptic neurons containing either round or elliptical vesicles. These synapses are characterized by 30-75 nm presynaptic agranular vesicles, widened cleft (approximately 20 nm), granular cleft material and postsynaptic density. There is no sign of any presynaptic density. (c) Very occasional SG profiles containing vesicles and making output synapses to unidentified neurons occur. In the lateral neuropil at the edge of the ganglion the SG gives rise to a small tuft of very fine dendrites. These are nearly all laden with vesicles and ramify in a complex region of neuropil containing many small profiles which are also vesicle-laden. The SG axon diminishes in diameter as it progresses along its peripheral nerve root, and finally terminates at a blind ending near the base of the swimmerets. It is sheathed along its entire length, and there is no sign of vesicles within it. We conclude that the SG axon makes no peripheral output.

Abdomen↗
PubMed1985

Motor programme switching in the crayfish swimmeret system.

Intracellular and extracellular recordings have been made from neurones of the swimmeret system in the semi-isolated abdominal ganglion of the crayfish during rhythmic activity. Extracellular recordings commonly reveal a motor programme (MP1) consisting of low-amplitude symmetrical power and return stroke activity with phase-constant posterior-to-anterior intersegmental coordination. Occasionally a different motor programme (MP2) is expressed. MP2 has higher amplitude episodic activity, with return stroke duration greater than power stroke, and with latency-constant anterior-to-posterior or near synchronous intersegmental coordination. Preparations may switch spontaneously between the two motor programmes. Intracellular recordings show that interneurones whose membrane potentials oscillate during MP1 and which can reset its rhythm usually cease to oscillate during MP2. During production of MP1, current injected into any one of a small number of interneurones can induce MP2. The polarity of current required is usually such as to drive the membrane potential towards the level normally associated with return stroke during MP1. During MP1 many motor neurones receive synaptic input with approximately sinusoidal waveform. During MP2 they may receive an episodic input with approximately sawtooth waveform, and/or input consisting of large, unitary EPSPs. The unitary EPSPs drive a 'bursty' mode of MP2 activity that is sometimes seen. The bursts of unitary EPSPs in MP2 appear to derive from a different source to that of the sinusoidal input in MP1. These sources are probably caudally-conducting through-interneurones and non-spiking local interneurones respectively. Thus experimental perturbation of a single neurone can induce a motor programme switch such as to change the activity of some hundreds of neurones in at least three ganglia. Neurones with this property would be convenient targets for controlling influences in the intact animal.

Animals↗