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Biomedical subjects

W Palinski

Publications and source records attributed to W Palinski.

At least 19 recordsLinked to original sources
PubMed2001

Maternal hypercholesterolemia and treatment during pregnancy influence the long-term progression of atherosclerosis in offspring of rabbits.

Maternal hypercholesterolemia during pregnancy is associated with enhanced fatty streak formation in human fetuses and faster progression of atherosclerosis during childhood even under normocholesterolemic conditions. A causal role of maternal hypercholesterolemia in lesion formation during fetal development has previously been established in rabbits. The same experimental model is now used to establish that maternal hypercholesterolemia or ensuing pathogenic events in fetal arteries enhance atherogenesis later in life. Five groups of rabbit mothers were fed chow, cholesterol-enriched chow, or cholesterol-enriched chow plus 1000 IU vitamin E, 3% cholestyramine, or both during pregnancy. Offspring of all groups (n=136) were fed a mildly hypercholesterolemic diet for up to a year and had similar cholesterol levels. Aortic lesion sizes and lipid peroxidation products in plasma and lesions in offspring were determined at birth, 6 months, or 12 months. Lesion progression in offspring of hypercholesterolemic mothers was greater than in all other groups. At each time point, offspring of hypercholesterolemic mothers had 1.5- to 3-fold larger lesions than offspring of normocholesterolemic mothers (P<0.01), with the greatest absolute differences at 12 months. Maternal treatment reduced lesions by 19% to 53%, compared with offspring of untreated hypercholesterolemic mothers (P<0.01), with the greatest effect in the vitamin E groups. At 12 months, lesions in offspring of all vitamin E and cholestyramine-treated mothers were similar to those of normocholesterolemic mothers. Lipid peroxidation end-products in lesions and plasma showed analogous differences between groups as lesions (P<0.01). Thus, pathogenic programming in utero increases the susceptibility to atherogenic risk factors later in life and maternal intervention with cholesterol-lowering drugs or antioxidants reduce postnatal lipid peroxidation and atherosclerosis in their offspring.

Animals↗
PubMed2001

Anticardiolipin antibodies from patients with the antiphospholipid antibody syndrome recognize epitopes in both beta(2)-glycoprotein 1 and oxidized low-density lipoprotein.

BACKGROUND: We recently suggested that many anticardiolipin antibodies bind only to oxidized cardiolipin (OxCL) and/or to OxCL-beta(2)-glycoprotein 1 (beta(2)GP1) adducts but not to a "reduced" cardiolipin that is unable to undergo oxidation. To test this hypothesis, we investigated 24 sera, 4 protein A-purified IgG fractions, and 3 human monoclonal antibodies that were all isolated from patients with antiphospholipid antibody syndrome (APS); testing was also performed in 7 controls. Two monoclonal antibodies (IS3 and IS4) were selected for binding to CL and one was selected for binding to beta(2)GP1 (LJB8). METHODS AND RESULTS: By chemiluminescent immunoassay, all APS sera samples bound only to OxCL and not to reduced CL, and the binding was inhibited >95% by OxCL but not reduced CL. All purified IgG fractions bound to beta(2)GP1 but only when the beta(2)GP1 was plated on microtiter wells coated with OxCL. All 3 monoclonal antibodies bound only to OxCL. On Western blots, IS4 and LJB8 bound to beta(2)GP1 as well as to delipidated apoB of oxidized LDL but not to native apoB. IS3 also bound to oxidized apoB on Western blot. Covalent modification of beta(2)GP1 with oxidation products of CL made it more antigenic for APS serum samples, for purified IgG fractions, and for the monoclonal antibodies. CONCLUSIONS: These data support the hypothesis that oxidation of CL is needed to generate epitopes for many anticardiolipin antibodies and that some of these epitopes are covalent adducts of OxCL with beta(2)GP1 or apoB.

Antibodies, Anticardiolipin↗
PubMed2001

Circulating autoantibodies to oxidized cardiolipin correlate with isoprostane F(2alpha)-VI levels and the extent of atherosclerosis in ApoE-deficient mice: modulation by vitamin E.

Lipid peroxidation plays an important role in atherogenesis. Previous studies suggested that autoantibodies against epitopes of oxidized low-density lipoprotein may indicate the extent or rate of progression of atherosclerosis. The aim of this study was to investigate whether autoantibodies to oxidized phospholipids, such as oxidized cardiolipin (OxCL), correlate with levels of isoprostane F(2alpha)-VI, a sensitive marker of in vivo lipid peroxidation, as well as with the extent of atherosclerosis. Two groups of apolipoprotein E-deficient mice were fed chow with or without vitamin E (2000 IU/kg diet) for 16 weeks. In untreated animals, autoantibodies against OxCL and urinary, plasma, and aortic isoprostane F(2alpha)-VI levels increased significantly. Vitamin E treatment significantly reduced antibody titers, isoprostane levels, and atherosclerosis at the end of the study, compared with untreated mice. Autoantibodies to OxCL correlated with aortic isoprostane F(2alpha)-VI levels (r(2) = 0.42, P =.001 for IgG and r(2) = 0.63, P <.001 for IgM). Both aortic isoprostane F(2alpha)-VI levels (r(2) = 0.59, P <.001) and titers of OxCL antibodies (r(2) = 0.70, P <.001 for IgG and r(2) = 0.68, P <.001 for IgM) correlated with the extent of aortic atherosclerosis. The fact that the levels of autoantibodies to OxCL correlated with a sensitive direct measure of lipid peroxidation in vivo and that both autoantibodies and aortic isoprostane F(2alpha)-VI levels correlated with the extent of atherosclerosis suggests that antibodies to OxCL are a sensitive indicator of in vivo lipid peroxidation and atherosclerosis.

Analysis of Variance↗
PubMed2001

Multiple role of reactive oxygen species in the arterial wall.

Increased oxidative stress plays an important role in vascular dysfunction and atherogenesis. Both systemic factors, such as hypercholesterolemia and hyperglycemia, and local factors, such as activation of macrophages and T cells, may contribute to oxidative stress. Oxidation of lipids in lipoproteins and cell membranes leads to functionally important modifications of proteins that affect their recognition by cell surface receptors and protein-protein interactions within the cell, including DNA binding. Oxidized LDL and extracellular oxidation modulate oxidation-sensitive signaling pathways, but it is not clear to what extent this results from receptor-mediated activation or from direct effects on the intracellular redox-balance. Extensive evidence indicates that reactive oxygen species (ROS) regulate gene expression by modulating a large number of transcription factors, including the nuclear transcription factor kappa B (NFkappaB), the peroxisome proliferator activated receptorgamma (PPARgamma), and pathways linked to apoptosis. It is also increasingly recognized that cell differentiation and proliferation, cytokine expression, and programmed cell death are determined by the interactions between oxidation-sensitive regulatory pathways previously thought to lead to distinct outcomes. Because hypercholesterolemia exerts pro-oxidant effects both intra- and extracellularly and because increased ROS formation affects vascular reactivity and atherogenesis by modulating multiple signaling pathways and transcriptional events, future investigations of its atherogenic mechanisms should place greater emphasis on the net effect of such modulation on the expression of a large spectrum of genes. One way of doing this will be by defining clusters of genes responding to hypercholesterolemic stimuli--or interventions with structurally unrelated antioxidants--in analogous ways, irrespective of what regulatory pathway they are controlled by. Microarray technologies that allow simultaneous assessment of large numbers of genes may provide a tool for this approach.

Animals↗
PubMed2001

Spontaneous plaque rupture and secondary thrombosis in apolipoprotein E-deficient and LDL receptor-deficient mice.

Apolipoprotein E-deficient (apoE(-/-)) and LDL receptor-deficient (LDLR(-/-)) mice develop extensive atherosclerosis, but the occurrence of spontaneous plaque rupture and secondary thrombosis in these models has not been established. The goal of this study was to provide histological evidence of acute complications of atherosclerotic lesions in these mice and to assess their prevalence. Complications of atherosclerosis were initially studied in aortas of control mice which died during previous intervention studies. Coronary arteries and the aortic origin were then systematically assessed in serial sections through the heart of apoE(-/-) and LDLR(-/-) mice. Aortic plaque rupture and/or thrombi were seen in 3 of 82 untreated mice from past intervention studies. Screening of heart sections of 33 older apoE(-/-) mice (age 9-20 months) showed extensive atherosclerosis in one or more coronary arteries of 18 animals. In three coronary arteries, the presence of blood-filled channels within advanced atherosclerotic lesions suggested previous plaque disruption/thrombotic events followed by recanalization. In the aortic origin of the same mice, four deep plaque ruptures (or erosions reaching necrotic core areas) and a large thrombus originating from the core of a disrupted atherosclerotic lesion were observed. Although plaque ruptures/deep erosions were far less frequent than in human populations, these observations demonstrate that spontaneous plaque rupture and secondary thrombosis do occur in apoE(-/-) and LDLR(-/-) mice. These mice may therefore be suitable for studying factors contributing to thrombotic complications of atherosclerosis. However, the frequent absence of a clearly defined single fibrous cap in murine coronary lesions limits their usefulness as a model of fibrous cap rupture.

Animals↗
PubMed2001

Scavenger receptors, oxidized LDL, and atherosclerosis.

Oxidized LDL (OxLDL) competes with oxidatively damaged and apoptotic cells for binding to mouse peritoneal macrophages, implying the presence of one or more common domains. However, the nature of the ligands involved has not been determined. Studies in this laboratory over the last several years provide evidence that oxidized phospholipids, present in OxLDL and also in the membrane of apoptotic cells, represent one such ligand. These oxidized phospholipids, either in the lipid phase of OxLDL or becoming attached covalently to apoprotein B during LDL oxidation, have been shown to play a major role in the binding of OxLDL to CD36 and to SR-B1 expressed in transfected cells. The lipid and protein moieties compete with each other to some extent, indicating that they are binding to at least one common site. A monoclonal antibody selected because of its reactivity with OxLDL proved to be an antibody against oxidized phospholipids (but not native phospholipids). This antibody (EO6) blocked the uptake of OxLDL by CD36 and by SR-B1 in transfected cells by as much as 80%; it also inhibited macrophage phagocytosis of apoptotic cells by about 40%. Thus, the persistence of receptors for OxLDL during evolution is probably accounted for by their role in recognition of ligands on the surfaces of oxidatively damaged or apoptotic cells. This has important implications in biology generally and specifically in atherogenesis, because apoptosis is a prominent feature of late lesions.

Animals↗
PubMed2001

Circulating autoantibodies to oxidized LDL correlate with arterial accumulation and depletion of oxidized LDL in LDL receptor-deficient mice.

Autoantibodies to oxidized low density lipoprotein (OxLDL) are elevated in some human populations with increased risk of atherosclerosis. To determine whether autoantibody levels to epitopes of OxLDL reflect the extent of aortic atherosclerosis and the content of OxLDL, we measured IgG and IgM autoantibody titers to malondialdehyde (MDA)-LDL and copper-oxidized LDL (Cu-OxLDL) in 43 LDL receptor-deficient mice consuming atherogenic and regression diets. Antibody titers were correlated to percent atherosclerotic surface area, aortic weight, and aortic OxLDL content, measured as the in vivo uptake of (125)I-MDA2, a monoclonal antibody to MDA-LDL. All mice were fed an atherogenic diet for 6 months, and 1 group was euthanized. The other 3 groups were fed an atherogenic diet (fat/CHOL group), normal mouse chow (chow group), or mouse chow supplemented with vitamins E and C (chow+VIT group) for an additional 6 months. After dietary intervention, compared with their own baseline, autoantibody titers to MDA-LDL and Cu-OxLDL increased significantly in the fat/CHOL group, whereas they did not change or decreased significantly in the chow and chow+VIT groups. Aortic weight and surface area showed significant progression in the fat/CHOL group, mild progression in the chow group, and no progression in the chow+VIT group (P<0.001), whereas OxLDL content actually decreased in the latter 2 groups (P<0.001). Significant correlations were seen with MDA-LDL autoantibody titers and OxLDL content (IgM, R=0.64 and P=0.0009; IgG, R=0.52 and P=0.009), as well as with percent surface area and aortic weight. These data support the hypothesis that autoantibody titers to OxLDL reflect changes in OxLDL content in atherosclerotic lesions of LDL receptor-deficient mice. Whether autoantibody titers to OxLDL will provide similar valuable insights into the extent of human atherosclerosis, particularly anatomic measurements of plaque burden and OxLDL content, remains to be determined.

Animals↗
PubMed2001

Troglitazone inhibits formation of early atherosclerotic lesions in diabetic and nondiabetic low density lipoprotein receptor-deficient mice.

Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma (PPARgamma) is a ligand-activated nuclear receptor expressed in all of the major cell types found in atherosclerotic lesions: monocytes/macrophages, endothelial cells, and smooth muscle cells. In vitro, PPARgamma ligands inhibit cell proliferation and migration, 2 processes critical for vascular lesion formation. In contrast to these putative antiatherogenic activities, PPARgamma has been shown in vitro to upregulate the CD36 scavenger receptor, which could promote foam cell formation. Thus, it is unclear what impact PPARgamma activation will have on the development and progression of atherosclerosis. This issue is important because thiazolidinediones, which are ligands for PPARgamma, have recently been approved for the treatment of type 2 diabetes, a state of accelerated atherosclerosis. We report herein that the PPARgamma ligand, troglitazone, inhibited lesion formation in male low density lipoprotein receptor-deficient mice fed either a high-fat diet, which also induces type 2 diabetes, or a high-fructose diet. Troglitazone decreased the accumulation of macrophages in intimal xanthomas, consistent with our in vitro observation that troglitazone and another thiazolidinedione, rosiglitazone, inhibited monocyte chemoattractant protein-1-directed transendothelial migration of monocytes. Although troglitazone had some beneficial effects on metabolic risk factors (in particular, a reduction of insulin levels in the diabetic model), none of the systemic cardiovascular risk factors was consistently improved in either model. These observations suggest that the inhibition of early atherosclerotic lesion formation by troglitazone may result, at least in part, from direct effects of PPARgamma activation in the artery wall.

Animals↗
PubMed2001

High-fat, high-cholesterol diet increases the incidence of gastritis in LDL receptor-negative mice.

Transgenic and knockout mice are widely used as models for atherogenesis studies. While developing a Helicobacter infection model in LDL receptor-negative (LDLR(-/-)) mice, we noticed that mice fed a high-fat, high-cholesterol diet often contracted gastritis independent of infection. To further investigate this finding, we studied 27 male and 18 female LDLR(-/-) mice fed high-fat, 1% or 1.25% cholesterol diets for 3 to 4 months. The extent of atherosclerosis was morphometrically analyzed in the whole aorta, and the degree of gastric inflammation was scored histologically in hematoxylin-eosin-stained stomach sections. The autoantibody titers to epitopes of oxidized LDL were also measured. Mice fed high-fat, high-cholesterol diets had a significantly higher incidence of gastritis than mice fed normal chow, 62% versus 5%, respectively (P<0.0001). This effect was specific for LDLR(-/-) mice, because no difference in gastritis was found in wild-type mice fed either diet. Animals with gastritis showed slightly more atherosclerosis than animals without gastritis: 16.3+/-6.4% versus 12.8+/-3.4% in males and 9.4+/-3.5% versus 6.5+/-3.3% in females. Cholesterol-fed mice also had significantly higher IgG autoantibody titers against modified LDL than normal chow-fed animals, but no difference was seen between the gastritis and nongastritis groups. We conclude that the standard high-fat, high-cholesterol diet commonly used in many murine models to induce atherosclerosis increased the incidence of gastritis significantly in LDLR(-/-) mice.

Animals↗
PubMed2001

Human-derived anti-oxidized LDL autoantibody blocks uptake of oxidized LDL by macrophages and localizes to atherosclerotic lesions in vivo.

Autoantibodies to oxidation-specific epitopes of low density lipoprotein (LDL), such as malondialdehyde-modified LDL (MDA-LDL), occur in plasma and atherosclerotic lesions of humans and animals. Plasma titers of such antibodies are correlated with atherosclerosis in murine models, and several such autoantibodies have been cloned. However, human-derived monoclonal antibodies to epitopes of oxidized LDL (OxLDL) have not yet been reported. We constructed a phage display antibody library from a patient with high plasma anti-MDA-LDL titers and isolated 3 monoclonal IgG Fab antibodies, which specifically bound to MDA-LDL. One of these, IK17, also bound to intact OxLDL as well as to its lipid and protein moieties but not to those of native LDL. IK17 inhibited the uptake of OxLDL by macrophages and also bound to apoptotic cells and inhibited their phagocytosis by macrophages. IK17 strongly immunostained necrotic cores of human and rabbit atherosclerotic lesions. When (125)I-IK17 was injected intravenously into LDL receptor-deficient mice, its specific uptake was greatly enriched in atherosclerotic plaques versus normal aortic tissue. Human autoantibodies to OxLDL have important biological properties that could influence the natural course of atherogenesis.

Animals↗
PubMed2001

Age-related effects on atherogenesis and scavenger enzymes of intracranial and extracranial arteries in men without classic risk factors for atherosclerosis.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Atherosclerosis occurs later and is less extensive in intracranial arteries than in extracranial arteries. However, the mechanisms responsible are poorly understood. A previous study has suggested a better antioxidant protection of intracranial arteries. METHODS: To assess the influence of age on arterial activity of antioxidant enzymes and atherogenesis, we compared intracranial and extracranial arteries of humans of different ages who retrospectively lacked confounding classic risk factors (48 premature fetuses aged 6.4+/-0.8 months [mean+/-SD], 58 children aged 7.9+/-3.8 years, 42 adults aged 42.5+/-5.1 years, and 40 elderly subjects aged 71.8+/-3.4 years; all males). Lesions were quantified by computer-assisted imaging analysis of sections of the middle cerebral and basilar arteries, the left anterior descending coronary artery, the common carotid artery, and the abdominal aorta. Macrophages, apolipoprotein B, oxidized LDL, and matrix metalloproteinase-9 in lesions were determined by immunocytochemistry. The effect of aging on atherogenesis was then compared with that on the activity of 4 antioxidant enzymes in the arterial wall. RESULTS: Atherosclerosis was 6- to 19-fold greater (P<0.01) in extracranial arteries than in intracranial arteries, and it increased linearly with age. Intracranial arteries showed significantly greater antioxidant enzyme activities than did extracranial arteries. However, the antioxidant protection of intracranial arteries decreased significantly in older age, coinciding with a marked acceleration of atherogenesis. An increase in matrix metalloproteinase-9 protein expression and in gelatinolytic activity consistent with the degree of intracranial atherosclerosis was also observed. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that a greater activity of antioxidant enzymes in intracranial arteries may contribute to their greater resistance to atherogenesis and that with increasing age intracranial arteries respond with accelerated atherogenesis when their antioxidant protection decreases relatively more than that of extracranial arteries.

Adult↗
PubMed2000

Maternal hypercholesterolemia enhances atherogenesis in normocholesterolemic rabbits, which is inhibited by antioxidant or lipid-lowering intervention during pregnancy: an experimental model of atherogenic mechanisms in human fetuses.

Maternal hypercholesterolemia during pregnancy is associated with a marked increase in aortic fatty streak formation in human fetuses and faster progression of atherosclerosis during normocholesterolemic childhood. However, the mechanisms responsible are unknown, and the contribution of genetic differences is difficult to assess in humans. The goal of this study was to determine whether maternal hypercholesterolemia per se may cause enhanced fatty streak formation in offspring and whether interventions during pregnancy can reduce it. During pregnancy, 1 group of New Zealand White rabbits was fed control chow and 8 groups were fed hypercholesterolemic diets Chol 1 (yielding plasma cholesterol of 153 mg/dL) or Chol 2 (yielding 359 mg/dL) without or with cholestyramine, vitamin E, or both. Offspring (n=15 to 25 per group) were killed at birth. Maternal hypercholesterolemia enhanced mean lesion size in the aorta of their offspring at birth from 44+/-18x10(3) micrometer(2) per section in controls to 85+/-26x10(3) in Chol 1 and 156+/-49x10(3) in Chol 2 groups (P<0.0001 for both). Cholestyramine or vitamin E treatment of mothers significantly reduced atherosclerosis at birth by up to 39% compared with controls on the same diet. Oxidized fatty acids and malondialdehyde in aortic atherosclerotic lesions and plasma were similarly affected by diets and treatment as atherosclerosis. Our results establish the causal role of hypercholesterolemia and peroxidation in fetal atherogenesis and demonstrate that both lipid-lowering and antioxidant interventions during pregnancy can reduce it. If it can be established that interventions in mothers also affect progression of lesions after birth, this may indicate a novel approach for the prevention of atherosclerosis.

Animals↗
PubMed2000

Evidence for oxidative activation of c-Myc-dependent nuclear signaling in human coronary smooth muscle cells and in early lesions of Watanabe heritable hyperlipidemic rabbits: protective effects of vitamin E.

BACKGROUND: Oxidized LDL (oxLDL) promotes atherogenesis, and antioxidants reduce lesions in experimental models. OxLDL-mediated effects on c-Myc are poorly characterized, and those on c-Myc nuclear pathways are completely unknown. c-Myc stimulates smooth muscle cell (SMC) proliferation and could be involved in atherosclerosis. We investigated the early effects of oxLDL and alpha-tocopherol on c-Myc, its binding partner Max, and the carboxy-terminal domain-binding factors activator protein-2 and elongation 2 factor in human coronary SMCs. We also investigated whether 9-week treatment of Watanabe heritable hyperlipidemic (WHHL) rabbits with diet-enriched alpha-tocopherol reduces c-Myc expression and oxLDL in the left coronary artery. METHODS AND RESULTS: OxLDL enhanced c-Myc/Max expression and transcription by cotransfection assay and the nuclear activities of E2F and activator protein-2 by binding shift and supershift in coronary SMCs. alpha-Tocopherol significantly reduced these molecular events. Furthermore, alpha-tocopherol reduced early lesions, SMC density, and the immunohistochemical presence of c-Myc, which colocalized with oxLDL/foam cells in the coronaries of WHHL rabbits. CONCLUSIONS: We provide the first evidence that oxLDL and alpha-tocopherol may influence c-Myc activation and several c-Myc-dependent signaling pathways in human coronary SMCs. The observation that in vivo, an antioxidant reduces both c-Myc and oxLDL in early coronary lesions of rabbits is consistent with, but does not prove, the hypothesis that c-Myc-dependent factors activated by oxidative processes contribute to atherogenesis and coronary heart disease.

Animals↗
PubMed2000

Immunological responses to oxidized LDL.

Considerable evidence now points to an important role for the immune system in experimental models of atherosclerosis. We have reviewed the growing body of evidence that oxidation of LDL generates a wide variety of neoself determinants that lead to cellular and humoral immune responses. In particular, we have demonstrated that at least some of the oxidation-specific epitopes generated on the oxidized LDL particle, such as oxidized phospholipid epitopes, are also generated on apoptotic cells and are also present on the surface of some bacteria. Many of these same epitopes serve as important ligands mediating the binding and clearance of oxidatively damaged lipoprotein particles and apoptotic cells, and the innate immune response to these epitopes can be seen as a concerted response to effect their removal. In addition, other epitopes of OxLDL also undoubtedly play a role in the immune activation that characterizes the progressive atherosclerotic plaque. It will be of great importance to define the importance of the role of these responses and to understand which are beneficial and which deleterious. Such information could lead one day to novel therapeutic approaches to inhibit atherogenesis that take advantage of the ability to manipulate the immune response.

Aldehydes↗
PubMed2000

Neo-self antigens and the expansion of B-1 cells: lessons from atherosclerosis-prone mice.

The pathogenesis of atherosclerosis involves an inflammatory process that is modulated by the immune system, and within these complex responses we have discerned a possible role for an archetypic B-1 clone. We speculate that due to their immunogenicity and in vivo distribution the "neo"-self determinants created in oxidatively modified LDL are highly stimulatory for certain B-1 cell clones. These neo-self determinants, which can be created chemically, by somatic processes, may in fact represent the molecular analogues of somatic maturation, or even aging. These changes, including those on non-protein antigens induced by oxidative metabolism, amongst others, create neo-determinants against which the host no doubt can not develop rigorous B-cell tolerance. The onset of expression of these oxidative neo-determinants relatively late in development may well serve a useful function for the highly evolved mammalian immune system, as targeting by evolutionarily selected B-1 clones may facilitate the amplification of other useful antibody-mediated physiologic functions. As in the case of the T15 clone, these antibodies may aid in protection against common microbial pathogens. Hence we postulate that during the evolution of the adaptive immune system the neo-self antigenic milieu may have been exploited for the natural selection of primordial clonal specificities. The T15 B-1 clone may then illustrate a common paradigm in which there has been natural selection based on utility for the defense of the individual from environmental threats, as well as for possible "housekeeping" role(s) and the maintenance of cellular homeostasis.

Animals↗