Biomedical subjects

Yi Lu

Publications and source records attributed to Yi Lu.

At least 91 records · Page 5Linked to original sources

PubMed2005

Arrayed primer extension: a robust and reliable genotyping platform for the diagnosis of single gene disorders: beta-thalassemia and thiopurine methyltransferase deficiency.

Mutation screenings, which were conventionally carried out individually because of different assay conditions, are usually time consuming and not cost effective. Using microarray technology, simultaneous molecular diagnosis of multiple mutations on a single platform is possible. To evaluate this idea, we developed a DNA chip platform to simultaneously detect 23 mutations of the beta-globin gene and 9 mutations of thiopurine methyltransferase (TPMT) gene based on the principle of arrayed primer extension (APEX). A blinded test consisting of 200 DNA samples with known genotypes was performed to validate this strategy. High genotyping accuracy of 97.3% and 100% for beta-globin and TPMT genes, respectively, were achieved. Further analysis on the fluorescent intensity demonstrated clear separation between the real signal and the background noise, which enabled us to set two cutoff values (V(lower) = 4.0 and V(upper) = 12.0) to determine the genotype quantitatively. Our results showed that APEX is a highly reliable genotyping strategy to detect mutations that cause beta-thalassemia or TPMT enzyme deficiency.

Base Sequence↗

PubMed2005

[Enteral administration of carbachol on systemic inflammatory response and multiple organ dysfunction induced by partial ischemia/reperfusion injury to the gut].

OBJECTIVE: To study the effects of enteral administration of carbachol on organ dysfunction induced by partial ischemia/reperfusion injury to the intestine. METHODS: Seventy-five white rabbits were randomized into four groups: ischemia/reperfusion (I/R), carbachol+ I/R and sham operation. The superior mesenteric artery (SMA) was partially blocked with self-designed blocker, producing 50% decrease in SMA blood flow, lasting for 4 hours. One hour after SMA occlusion, carbachol was injected into gut in carbachol+I/R group. Sham group was treated as same as I/R group except without SMA occlusion. The levels of alanine aminotransferase (ALT), creatinine (Cr), MB isoenzyme of creatine kinase (CK-MB) and tumor-necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) were measured by automatic analyzer and with radio-immunology method before SMA occlusion, and at 2, 4, 6, 8, 24, 48 and 72 hours after occlusion. The pathological changes of the intestinal tissue were observed with hematoxylin and eosin stained sections. RESULTS: In I/R groups, the levels of TNF-alpha, Cr, ALT, CK-MB in plasma were increased dramatically after partial ischemia/reperfusion injury to the gut. Severe pathological changes were observed in the hearts, livers, and kidneys. While in carbachol treatment groups, the levels of TNF-alpha, Cr, ALT, CK-MB in plasma were decreased dramatically after enteral administration of carbachol during ischemia stage. The pathological injuries were alleviated in the heart, liver, and kidney. CONCLUSION: Enteral administration of carbachol may alleviate after the systemic inflammatory response and pathological changes in various organs, thus provide a protective effect on gut and remote organs partial ischemia/reperfusion of the intestine.

Animals↗

PubMed2005

[Effects of carbachol on apoptosis of peripheral white blood cells and expression of cytokines in rats suffering from gut ischemia/reperfusion injury].

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the effect of cholinergic drug carbachol on apoptosis and expression of certain cytokines of peripheral blood lymphocytes and neutrophils in rats subjected to ischemia/reperfusion injury of the intestine. METHODS: Thirty-six Wistar male rats were randomly divided into groups as follows: sham operation, 1 and 2 hour-gut ischemia, 1 hour-gut ischemia followed by reperfusion for 1 hour and 2 hours, carbachol + 1 hour-gut ischemia, and carbachol + 1 hour-gut ischemia followed by reperfusion for 2 hours. Then the gut was subjected to ischemia/reperfusion. At different time points after the said injury, the total number and differential count of leukocytes, apoptosis rate of lymphocytes and neutrophils, and the mRNA expression levels of certain cytokines in peripheral blood leukocytes, were determined. RESULTS: At 1 hour after gut ischemia, the total number of leukocytes decreased (the ratio of lymphocytes increased and that of neutrophils decreased), but it increased after gut reperfusion. Carbachol could reduce the apoptosis rate of lymphocytes, but enhance that of neutrophils after gut ischemia. In leukocytes, mRNAs expression of inflammatory (TNF-alpha) and antiinflammatory (IL-10) cytokines were upregulated at 1 hour after gut ischemia, while that of IL-10, IL-4 and interferon-gamma were down-regulated distinctly at 2 hours following reperfusion. All of these phenomena were ameliorated by giving carbachol. CONCLUSION: Carbachol could reduce the peripheral lymphocytes apoptosis subsequent to gut ischemia, and regulate the balance between inflammatory and antiinflammatory cytokines expression in leukocytes during gut ischemia and reperfusion. The results suggest that carbachol might be a potential therapeutic agent in preventing uncontrolled inflammatory response as a result of ischemia/reperfusion injury of the intestine.

Animals↗

PubMed2005

[A clinical report on the use of burst mode phacoemulsification].

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the clinical outcome of phacoemulsification by using burst mode phaco power. METHODS: A randomized prospective study of 178 consecutive cases (222 eyes) was conducted. The patients had similar stages of cataract and were matched sex and age. All cases received phacoemulsification by 1 surgeon and were randomly assigned to 1 of 3 groups (the burst mode group, the pulse mode group and the continuous mode group). The effective phaco time (EPT) and the actual power (AP) was recorded. The difference in accumulated energy (AECP = EPT x AP), visual acuity, corneal edema, and endothelial cell loss were compared among the three groups. RESULTS: The mean EPT of burst group was statistically shorter than those of the pulse group and the continuous group. The mean AECP of burst group was statistically lower than those of the pulse group and the continuous group. Corneal clarity on the first and third postoperative day of the burst group was better in comparison to those of the other two groups. The mean endothelial cell loss in burst group was significant less than that of two other groups 1 week after surgery. CONCLUSIONS: The use of burst mode phaco power reduces significantly the EPT and the amount of ultrasound energy. The decreased energy utilization has significant benefits including diminished injury to surrounding ocular structures, less corneal edema, endothelial cell loss and rapid visual rehabilitation. It is safe to use the burst mode of phacoemulsification and therefore it is advised to use this mode in clinical practice.

Adult↗

PubMed2005

[Phacoemulsification and the negative power of intraocluar lenses in extremely myopic eyes].

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the clinical effects of phacoemulsification and the negative power of intraocluar lens implantation in patients with extreme myopia and cataract. METHODS: 89 patients (126 eyes) received phacoemulsification and a negative power intraocluar lens implantation. Preoperative axial length, postoperative visual acuity and refractive error were recorded. Intraoperative and postoperative complications were observed. The follow-up time is from 6 to 25 months. RESULTS: The mean preoperative axial length is 32.45 mm. Best corrected visual acuity achieved 0.2 or better in 106 eyes (84.1%) and 0.5 or better in 69 eyes (54.8%). Of the 126 eyes, 56.3% were within 1.00 diopter (D) of refractive error and 90.5% were within an error of 2.00 D. Only 1 eye has posterior capsule rupture. 28 eyes had binocular disturbances. 15 eyes developed posterior capsule opacification and 6 eyes were performed neodymium: YAG laser posterior capsulotomy. No retinal or choroidal detachment or pressure improvement was seen during the follow-up. CONCLUSION: It is safe and effective for extreme myopia with cataract to implant a negative power intraocular lens after phacoemulsification.

Adult↗

PubMed2005

[Preparation of transfersomes of vincristine sulfate and study on its prcutaneous penetration].

OBJECTIVE: To select the best preparation method of vincristine transfersomes (VCR-T) and predict its possibility of being a new formulation of VCR. METHOD: Orthogonal design was used to optimize the preparation methods on the basis of single factor pretests; and the permeation tests in vitro were performed in modified Franz diffusion cells. RESULT: The optimum formula was: pH was equal to 7.3, the ratio of lecithin to sodium deoxycholate is 70/20, the weight of VCR is 10 mg, hydrating time is 30 minutes. The optimized solution was light yellow and transparent colloid solution. The VCR-T are spherical and smooth with average diameters of 94 nm and an encapsulation ratio of 90%. The test in vitro showed that VCR-T could permeat through mouse skin at zero rate with the cumulative penetrating quality amounting to 63.8%. CONCLUSION: Transfersomes may become a promising carrier of VCR for clinic use.

Administration, Cutaneous↗

PubMed2004

Uptake of folate-conjugated albumin nanoparticles to the SKOV3 cells.

The bovine serum albumin nanoparticles (BSANPs) were prepared by a coacervation method and chemical cross-linking with glutaraldehyde. Furthermore, the BSANPs were reacted with the activated folic acid to conjugate folate via amino groups of the BSANPs, to improve their intracellular uptake to target cells. The nanoparticles were apparently spherical with diameters less than 150 nm and their average diameter was 70 nm by a transmission electron microscope (TEM) and a laser light scattering particle analyzer, respectively. An extent of folate conjugation with the BSANPs was 169 micromol/g BSA by spectrophotometric analysis. Cell uptake studies were carried out in SKOV3 cells (human ovarian cancer cell line) using fluorescein isothiocyanate labeled nanoparticles. The extent of BSANPs taken up by the cells was measured with a fluorescence spectrophotometer. The nanoparticles were taken up to the cells and levels of binding and uptake were increased with the time of incubation until 4 h. The levels of folate-conjugated BSANPs were higher than those of BSANPs and saturable. The association of folate-conjugated BSANPs to SKOV3 cells was inhibited by an excess amount of folic acid, suggesting that the binding and/or uptake were mediated by the folate receptor. These results implied that the folate-conjugated BSANPs might be useful as a drug carrier system to deliver drugs into the cells expressing folate receptor.

Cell Line, Tumor↗

PubMed2004

Incremental genetic K-means algorithm and its application in gene expression data analysis.

BACKGROUND: In recent years, clustering algorithms have been effectively applied in molecular biology for gene expression data analysis. With the help of clustering algorithms such as K-means, hierarchical clustering, SOM, etc, genes are partitioned into groups based on the similarity between their expression profiles. In this way, functionally related genes are identified. As the amount of laboratory data in molecular biology grows exponentially each year due to advanced technologies such as Microarray, new efficient and effective methods for clustering must be developed to process this growing amount of biological data. RESULTS: In this paper, we propose a new clustering algorithm, Incremental Genetic K-means Algorithm (IGKA). IGKA is an extension to our previously proposed clustering algorithm, the Fast Genetic K-means Algorithm (FGKA). IGKA outperforms FGKA when the mutation probability is small. The main idea of IGKA is to calculate the objective value Total Within-Cluster Variation (TWCV) and to cluster centroids incrementally whenever the mutation probability is small. IGKA inherits the salient feature of FGKA of always converging to the global optimum. C program is freely available at http://database.cs.wayne.edu/proj/FGKA/index.htm. CONCLUSIONS: Our experiments indicate that, while the IGKA algorithm has a convergence pattern similar to FGKA, it has a better time performance when the mutation probability decreases to some point. Finally, we used IGKA to cluster a yeast dataset and found that it increased the enrichment of genes of similar function within the cluster.

Algorithms↗

PubMed2004

Accelerated color change of gold nanoparticles assembled by DNAzymes for simple and fast colorimetric Pb2+ detection.

The combination of high metal selectivity of DNAzymes with the strong distance-dependent optical properties of metallic nanoparticles has presented considerable opportunities for designing colorimetric sensors for metal ions. We previously communicated a design for a colorimetric lead sensor based on the assembly of gold nanoparticles by a Pb(2+)-dependent DNAzyme. However, heating to 50 degrees C followed by a cooling process of approximately 2 h was required to observe the color change. Herein we report a new improved design that allows fast (<10 min) detection of Pb(2+) at ambient temperature. This improvement of sensor performance is a result of detailed studies of the DNAzyme and nanoparticles, which identified "tail-to-tail" nanoparticle alignment, and large (42 nm diameter) nanoparticle size as the major determining factors in allowing fast color changes. The optimal conditions for other factors such as temperature (35 degrees C) and concentrations of the DNAzyme (2 microM), its substrate (3 nM), and NaCl (300 mM) have also been determined. These results demonstrate that fundamental understanding of the DNAzyme biochemistry and nanoparticle science can lead to dramatically improved colorimetric sensors.

Biosensing Techniques↗

PubMed2004

A site-selective dual anchoring strategy for artificial metalloprotein design.

Introducing nonnative metal ions or metal-containing prosthetic groups into a protein can dramatically expand the repertoire of its functionalities and thus its range of applications. Particularly challenging is the control of substrate-binding and thus reaction selectivity such as enantioselectivity. To meet this challenge, both non-covalent and single-point attachments of metal complexes have been demonstrated previously. Since the protein template did not evolve to bind artificial metal complexes tightly in a single conformation, efforts to restrict conformational freedom by modifying the metal complexes and/or the protein are required to achieve high enantioselectivity using the above two strategies. Here we report a novel site-selective dual anchoring (two-point covalent attachment) strategy to introduce an achiral manganese salen complex (Mn(salen)), into apo sperm whale myoglobin (Mb) with bioconjugation yield close to 100%. The enantioselective excess increases from 0.3% for non-covalent, to 12.3% for single point, and to 51.3% for dual anchoring attachments. The dual anchoring method has the advantage of restricting the conformational freedom of the metal complex in the protein and can be generally applied to protein incorporation of other metal complexes with minimal structural modification to either the metal complex or the protein.

Animals↗

PubMed2004

pH-dependent transition between delocalized and trapped valence states of a CuA center and its possible role in proton-coupled electron transfer.

A pH-dependent transition between delocalized and trapped mixed valence states of an engineered CuA center in azurin has been investigated by UV-visible absorption and electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopic techniques. At pH 7.0, the CuA azurin displays a typical delocalized mixed valence dinuclear [Cu(1.5)....Cu(1.5)] spectra with optical absorptions at 485, 530, and 760 nm, and with a seven-line EPR hyperfine. Upon lowering of the pH from 7.0 to 4.0, the absorption at 760 nm shifted to lower energy toward 810 nm, and a four-line EPR hyperfine, typical of a trapped valence, was observed. The pH-dependent transition is reversible because increasing the pH restores all delocalized spectral features. Lowering the pH resulted in not only a trapped valence state, but also a dramatically increased reduction potential of the Cu center (from 160 mV to 340 mV). Mutation of the titratable residues around the metal-binding site ruled out Glu-114 and identified the C-terminal histidine ligand (His-120) as a site of protonation, because the His120Ala mutation abolished the above pH-dependent transition. The corresponding histidine in cytochrome c oxidases is along a major electron transfer pathway from CuA center to heme a. Because the protonation of this histidine can result in an increased reduction potential that will prevent electron flow from the CuA to heme a, the CuA and the histidine may play an important role in regulating proton-coupled electron transfer.

Azurin↗

PubMed2004

Fluoride content in tea and its relationship with tea quality.

The tea plant is known as a fluorine accumulator. Fluoride (F) content in fresh leaves collected from 14 plantations in China was investigated. The F increased with maturity, and the F variation was remarkable in the tender shoots. Furthermore, significant negative relationships were observed between F content and the content of the quality parameters total polyphenols and amino acids. These substances are rich in young leaves and poor in mature ones. With regard to quality of tea products, the relationship with F content was studied using 12 brands of tea products in four categories: green tea, oolong tea, black tea, and jasmine tea collected from six provinces. The F level increased with the decline in quality and showed good correlation with the quality grades. The results suggest that the F content could be used as a quality indicator for tea evaluation.

Amino Acids↗

PubMed2004

[Research on the expression of some immune markers after reamed and unreamed femoral nailing].

OBJECTIVE: To investigate on the expression of some cytokines and other immunity makers right after the operation, the effect of femoral nailing on systemic immunity and sought to differentiate any differences between reamed and unreamed IMN. METHODS: Fifty-nine patients presenting with acute femoral fractured including 55 male and 4 female, 32.1 years old on average, are divided into 2 group depend on ISS. All patients were treated by close reduction and intramedullary nail for fixation. In group 1, 23 reamed and 23 unreamed; in group 2, 7 reamed and 6 unreamed. Venous blood samples were taken at 24 hr pre-operationally, and 1 hr, 24 hr, 48 hr post operationally. Serum TNF, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10 were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. CRP was measured by protein assay apparatus. We also collected venous samples from 22 healthy uninjured volunteers, which formed control group. RESULTS: All immune marks were elevated post operation, for IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, this elevation began at 1 hr after operation, reached to the peak at 24 hr, and then down but never to the normal at 48 hr. For TNF and CRP, the level were raised at 24 hr, and then fallen at 48 hr. All mediators were raised significantly above the control group (< 0.05). Between reamed and unreamed patients both in group 1 and group 2, Although there was a trend towards higher levels of TNF, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10 and CRP in RFN than in the URFN, no significant difference was found except that there was a greater release of serum IL-10 in RFN than in URFN at 24 hr post operation (P = 0.047). Two patients have become SIRS, but the markers have shown no significant difference with those that have no SIRS symptoms. CONCLUSIONS: To the patient not injured severely, using IMN for treatment will make the inflammatory mediators re-released on higher level than normal, which will be balanced by immunity itself soon, so IMN won't make any damage severely. And no significant difference were found between reamed and unreamed nail. But the changing of IL-10 show us that after IMN, especially the reamed nailing, the level of anti-inflammatory mediators will show the difference more apparently between RFN and URFN while the patient got injured more severely. Under this condition, the RFN will aggravate the restrain of immunity.

Adult↗

PubMed2004

The selenocysteine-substituted blue copper center: spectroscopic investigations of Cys112SeCys Pseudomonas aeruginosa azurin.

Azurin is a small electron-transfer protein belonging to the cupredoxin family. The Cu atom is located within a trigonal plane coordinated by two histidines (His46 and His117) and a cysteine (Cys112) with two more distant ligands (Gly45 and Met121) providing axial interactions. A Cys112SeCys derivative has been prepared by expressed protein ligation, and detailed UV/vis, EPR and EXAFS studies at the Cu and Se K-edges have been carried out. Marked changes are observed between the EPR parameters of the Cys112SeCys and WT azurin derivatives, which include a 2-fold increase in A(||), a decrease in g-values, and a large increase in rhombicity of the g-tensor. The Cu-Se and Se-Cu bond lengths obtained from analysis of the Cu and Se K-EXAFS of the oxidized protein were found to be 2.30 and 2.31 A, respectively, 0.14 A longer than the Cu-S distance of the WT protein. Unexpectedly, the Cu-Se bond lengths were found to undergo only minor changes during reduction, suggesting a very similar structure in both redox states and extending the "rack" hypothesis to the Se-substituted protein.

Azurin↗

PubMed2004

In vivo real-time imaging of TGF-beta-induced transcriptional activation of the RANK ligand gene promoter in intraosseous prostate cancer.

BACKGROUND: Current animal models of prostate cancer (CaP) bone metastasis do not allow measurement of either tumor growth in bone over time or activation of gene promoters in intraosseous tumors. To develop these methods, we used bioluminescent imaging (BLI) to determine if expression of receptor activator of NF-kappaB ligand (RANKL), a pro-osteoclastogenic factor that promotes CaP bone metastases, is modulated by the bone matrix protein transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-beta) in vivo. METHODS: C4-2B human CaP cells were treated with TGF-beta in vitro and RANKL mRNA and protein production were measured by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and ELISA, respectively. Then C4-2B cells stably transfected with the RANKL promoter driving luciferase (lux) were injected intra-tibially into severe combined immundeficient (SCID) mice. Tumors were subjected to BLI every 2 weeks for 6 weeks and serum prostate specific antigen (PSA) was measured using ELISA. Vehicle (V), 1,25 dihydroxyvitamin D (VitD), or TGF-beta was administered to mice with established tumors and BLI to measure RANKL promoter activity was performed. Tumors were then subjected to immunohistochemistry for lux and assayed for RANKL mRNA levels. RESULTS: TGF-beta induced RANKL protein and mRNA expression and activated the RANKL promoter activity in a dose-dependent manner in vitro. BLI demonstrated an increase in intraosseous tumor size over time, which correlated with serum PSA levels. Administration of TGF-beta and VitD to mice with established intraosseous tumors increased lux activity compared to V. Intratibial tumor RANKL mRNA expression paralleled the increased promoter activity. Immunohistochemistry confirmed the presence of lux in the intraosseous tumors. CONCLUSIONS: These results demonstrate the ability to measure intraosseous tumor growth over time and gene promoter activation in an established intraosseous tumor in vivo and also demonstrate that TGF-beta induces activates the RANKL promoter. These results provide a novel method to explore the biology of CaP bone metastases.

Animals↗

PubMed2004

Determination of reduction potential of an engineered Cu(A) azurin by cyclic voltammetry and spectrochemical titrations.

The reduction potentials of an engineered CuA azurin in its native and thermally denatured states have been determined using cyclic voltammetry and spectrochemical titrations. Using a 4,4'-dipyridyl disulfide modified gold electrode, the reduction potentials of native and thermally denatured CuA azurin are the same within the experimental error (422 +/- 5 and 425 +/- 5 mV vs. NHE, respectively, in 50 mM ammonium acetate buffer, pH 5.1, 300 mM NaCl, 25 degrees C), indicating that the potential is that of a nonnative state. In contrast, using a didodecyldimethylammonium bromide (DDAB) film-pyrolytic graphite edge (PGE) electrode, the reduction potentials of native and thermally denatured CuA azurin have been determined to be 271 +/- 7 mV (50 mM ammonium acetate buffer, pH 5.1, 4 degrees C) and 420 +/- 1 mV (50 mM ammonium acetate buffer, pH 5.1, 25 degrees C), respectively. Spectroscopic redox titration using [Ru(NH3)5Py]2+ resulted in a reduction potential (254+/-4 mV) (50 mM ammonium acetate buffer, pH 5.1, 4 degrees C) similar to the value obtained using the DDAB film-PGE electrochemical method. Complete reoxidation of [Ru(NH3)5Py]2+-reduced CuA azurin is also consistent with the conclusion that this spectrochemical titration method using [Ru(NH3)5Py]2+ measures the reduction potential of native CuA azurin.

Azurin↗

PubMed2004

Dexamethasone and dextran 40 treatment of 32 patients with severe acute pancreatitis.

AIM: Based on the pathogenesis of severe acute pancreatitis and our experimental studies, to investigate the effect of dexamethasone and dextran in treatment of patients with severe acute pancreatitis. METHODS: Thirty-two patients with severe acute pancreatitis were treated with 0.5-1 mg/kg per day dexamethasone for 3-5 d, and 500-1,000 mL/d of dextran 40 for 7 d, besides the routine therapy. RESULTS: After 4-8 h of treatment, abdominal pain began to be relieved; range of tenderness began to be localized in 27 patients. They were cured with nonsurgical treatment. Five of them were deteriorated, and treated with surgery. Four patients in this group died. CONCLUSION: Dexamethasone and dextran 40 block the pathologic process of severe acute pancreatitis through inhibition of inflammatory mediators and improvement of microcirculation disorders respectively.

Adult↗

PubMed2004

Adenosine-dependent assembly of aptazyme-functionalized gold nanoparticles and its application as a colorimetric biosensor.

Previous work has shown that DNAzyme-directed assembly of gold nanoparticles can be utilized to make effective colorimetric biosensors. However, the method is restricted to analytes that are directly involved in phosphodiester cleavage. To expand the methodology to a broader range of analytes, a colorimetric adenosine biosensor based on the aptazyme-directed assembly of gold nanoparticles is reported here. The aptazyme is based on the 8-17 DNAzyme with an adenosine aptamer motif that can modulate the DNAzyme activity through allosteric interactions depending on the presence of adenosine. In the absence of adenosine, the aptazyme is inactive and the substrate strands can serve as linkers to assemble DNA-functionalized 13-nm-diameter gold nanoparticles, resulting in a blue color. However, the presence of adenosine activates the aptazyme, which cleaves the substrate strand, disrupting the formation of nanoparticle aggregates. A red color of separated gold nanoparticles is observed. Concentrations of adenosine of up to 1 mM can be measured semiquantitatively by the degree of blue to red color changes or quantitatively by the extinction ratio at 520 and 700 nm. Under the same conditions, 5 mM guanosine, cytidine, or uridine resulted in a blue color only, indicating good selectivity of the sensor. The color difference can be clearly observed by the naked eye by spotting the resulting sensor solution onto an alumina TLC plate. Since aptamers that can target many classes of important analytes have already been selected, they can be adapted into aptazyme systems through rational design or further selection. Thus, colorimetric biosensors for many analytes of interest can be designed using the method presented here, regardless of whether the analytes are directly involved in the cleavage reaction or not.

Adenosine↗