PubMed · 7636331
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D J Chaplin. Chemosensitization at elevated temperatures.. https://doi.org/10.3109/02656739509022480
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Nitrogen mustards such as mechlorethamine have previously been shown to covalently cross-link DNA through the N7 position of the two guanine bases of a d[GXC].d[GYC] duplex sequence, a so-called 1,3 G-G-cross-link, when X-Y = C-G or T-A. Here, we report the formation of a new mechlorethamine cross-link with the d[GXC].d[GYC] fragment when X-Y is a C-C mismatch pair. Mechlorethamine cross-links this fragment preferentially between the two mismatched cytosine bases, rather than between the guanine bases. The cross-link also forms when one or both of the guanine bases of the d[GCC].d[GCC] fragment are replaced by N7-deazaguanine, and, more generally, forms with any C-C mismatch, regardless of the flanking base pairs. Piperidine cleavage of the cross-link species containing the d[GCC].d[GCC] sequence gives DNA fragments consistent with alkylation at the mismatched cytosine bases. We also provide evidence that the cross-link reaction occurs between the N3 atoms of the two cytosine bases by showing that the formation of the C-C cross-link is pH dependent for both mechlorethamine and chlorambucil. Dimethyl sulfate (DMS) probing of the cross-linked d[GCC].d[GCC] fragment showed that the major groove of the guanine adjacent to the C-C mismatch is still accessible to DMS. In contrast, the known minor groove binder Hoechst 33258 inhibits the cross-link formation with a C-C mismatch pair flanked by A-T base pairs. These results suggest that the C-C mismatch is cross-linked by mechlorethamine in the minor groove. Since C-C pairs may be involved in unusual secondary structures formed by the trinucleotide repeat sequence d[CCG]n, and associated with triplet repeat expansion diseases, mechlorethamine may serve as a useful probe for these structures.
DNA chip technology enables simultaneous examination of how approximately 6,200 Saccharomyces cerevisiae gene transcript levels, representing the entire genome, respond to environmental change. By using chips bearing oligonucleotide arrays, we show that, after exposure to the alkylating agent methyl methanesulfonate, approximately 325 gene transcript levels are increased and approximately 76 are decreased. Of the 21 genes that already were known to be induced by a DNA-damaging agent, 18 can be scored as inducible in this data set, and surprisingly, most of the newly identified inducible genes are induced even more strongly than these 18. We examined 42 responsive and 8 nonresponsive ORFs by conventional Northern blotting, and 48 of these 50 ORFs responded as they did by DNA chip analysis, with magnitudes displaying a correlation coefficient of 0.79. Responsive genes fall into several expected and many unexpected categories. Evidence for the induction of a program to eliminate and replace alkylated proteins is presented.
Pulsed field gel electrophoresis showed that the initiation time of DNA breakage induced by the DNA alkylating agent duocarmycin A, which is not a redox-cycling agent, was almost the same in the human leukemia cell line HL-60 and its H2O2-resistant clone HP100. Catalase activity of HP100 cells was much higher than that of HL-60 cells. Duocarmycin A-mediated DNA ladder formation in HP100 cells was delayed compared with that in HL-60 cells, suggesting the involvement of H2O2 in duocarmycin A-induced apoptosis. Flow cytometry demonstrated that peroxide formation preceded loss of mitochondrial membrane potential (delta psi m) in cells treated with duocarmycin A. Then, caspase-3 was activated, followed by DNA ladder formation. These findings suggest that DNA damage by duocarmycin A induces H2O2 generation, which causes delta psi m loss and subsequently caspase-3 activation, resulting in apoptosis.