PubMed · 8642738
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R W Bucholz, J A Buckwalter. 1996-06-19. Orthopedic surgery.. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8642738/
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Different types of polydactylies and other hand malformations are commonly seen. Here, we describe a very unusual type of hand malformation characterised by campto-polydactyly with totally disorganised configuration of digits. The role of possible genes involved in development of hands and digits is discussed.
Transforming growth factor betas are a group of polypeptide growth factors that have a wide range of activities in the musculoskeletal and immunological systems. They are thought to play an important role in the development, induction, and repair of bone. This family of closely related genes includes the five known transforming growth factor betas and also the bone morphogenetic proteins. With the development of new techniques to analyze gene expression, the broad range of cellular activities regulated by transforming growth factor beta is beginning to be understood. The critical role that transforming growth factor beta plays in the regulation and stimulation of mesenchymal precursor cells for chondrocytes, osteoblasts, and osteoclasts is now emerging based on a series of in vitro studies. Although transforming growth factor betas appear to stimulate proliferation of precursor cells, it appears that transforming growth factor betas have an inhibitory effect on mature cell lines. In vivo studies indicate the presence of transforming growth factor beta protein and transforming growth factor beta gene expression in normal fracture healing, whereas exogenous transforming growth factor beta administration stimulates the recruitment and proliferation of osteoblasts in fracture healing. Although the cascade of events that leads to bone formation and repair is not completely understood, transforming growth factor beta's central role in the regulation of fracture healing is not disputed.
When placing implants in the mandible or maxilla, it is important for clinicians to understand the process of bone remodeling, the different types of bone, and how these factors can affect the integration of osseous dental implants. Approximately 0.7% of a human skeleton is resorbed daily and replaced by new healthy bone. With aging and metabolic disease states, the normal turnover process may be reduced, resulting in an increase in the mean age of the present bone. This increase can affect the placement and integration of implants. Herein follows a discussion of different types of bone cells, the metabolism of bone, the microscopic, macroscopic, and molecular structure of bone, and the process of bone modeling and remodeling.