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PubMed1984

Aluminium coffee percolators as a source of dietary aluminium.

The aluminium content of coffee brewed and stored in aluminium percolators was measured using atomic absorption spectrometry. Brewing in a new aluminium pot added 0.88 (immediately after brewing ) to 1.18 mg aluminium (after a further 12-hr storage in the pot and reheating ) to each cup of coffee. Percolators which had been used repeatedly were less susceptible to mobilization of aluminium by coffee, and brewing in these increased the aluminium content of each cup of coffee by 0.40 mg immediately after brewing and by 0.58 mg after storage for 12 hr in the pot and reheating . The aluminium content of the ground coffee beans used in this work was relatively high (51.8 ppm). To demonstrate that the bulk of the aluminium measured in the percolated coffee samples were dissolved aluminium and was not part of the aluminium associated with the ground coffee, the dialysable aluminium was measured in some samples of coffee percolated in a new aluminium pot. These data indicate that 61% of the aluminium in the percolated coffee was dialysable immediately after brewing . Samples that were stored in a new aluminium percolator and reheated to 96 degrees C contained 75% dialysable aluminium. Although the levels of aluminium in percolated coffee have been measured, the bioavailability of the aluminium ingested in this way has yet to be determined.

Aluminum↗

PubMed1990

Analysis of hydrogen peroxide in freshly prepared coffees.

Coffee has been shown unequivocally to be genotoxic in vitro, but no genotoxicity has been seen in vivo testing. Since the in vitro genotoxicity appears to be dependent on hydrogen peroxide, it is important to know whether hydrogen peroxide is present in prepared coffee and whether it is being formed during the in vitro testing. We have devised a procedure to measure hydrogen peroxide in prepared coffee using disposable reversed-phase columns to decolourize the coffee and retain its catechols. Hydrogen peroxide was assayed in the eluate from the columns by two chromogenic methods: horseradish-peroxidase-mediated oxidation of phenol red and non-enzymatic oxidation of iodide. Three brands of brewed and instant coffee prepared in the manner recommended to the consumer were studied. Although six of the twelve preparations of coffee contained 3-29 microM-hydrogen peroxide, in the other six none could be detected. Sampling, batch, and aging effects may contribute to the variability in the testing, but there is no indication of greater than 100 microM-hydrogen peroxide levels in freshly prepared coffees, as reported in the literature using other methods. Hydrogen peroxide did form slowly in prepared coffee as the beverage became oxygenated, but it formed quickly if the coffee was diluted by addition to an oxygen-containing solution at neutral pH and then incubated at 37 degrees C. These results strongly suggest that adventitious formation of hydrogen peroxide is a confounding factor in the analytical and in vitro genotoxicological testing of coffees.

Beverages↗

PubMed1995

The occurrence of ochratoxin A in coffee.

Ochratoxin A (OA) is a nephrotoxic and nephrocarcinogenic mycotoxin which is predominantly produced by the two ubiquitous fungal genera, Aspergillus and Penicillium. OA is found in foodstuffs, predominantly in cereals but also in coffee beans. Inconsistent results have been published regarding the influence of roasting on the OA content in roasted beans and the transfer into the coffee brew. In the present study an HPLC method was used for the detection of OA in green and roasted coffee beans as well as in the coffee brew. For qualitative confirmation and quantification of low OA levels in roasted coffee beans and coffee brew an additional clean-up step by immunoaffinity column was applied before HPLC analysis. In green coffee beans OA was detected in 13 out of 25 commercial samples analysed (detection limit, 0.5 micrograms OA/kg). Roasting (250 degrees C, 150 sec) of naturally contaminated green beans or beans inoculated with A. ochraceus resulted only in a small reduction in the OA level. OA was also found to be eluted into the brew. Of 40 coffee brews prepared from commercially available samples OA was detected in 18 brews by HPLC and/or additional immunoaffinity column clean-up in the range of 0.4 to 7.8 micrograms OA/kg equivalent ground coffee. Our preliminary results suggest, therefore, that regular coffee consumption may contribute to exposure of humans to OA.

Chromatography, High Pressure Liquid↗

PubMed1995

The impact of changes in coffee consumption on serum cholesterol.

To investigate the possible association between changes in coffee consumption and serum cholesterol levels, information was obtained from 2109 healthy nonsmokers aged 25-65 years at two clinic visits to a preventive medical center between 1987 and 1991 (mean interval between visits: 16.7 months). After adjusting for age and changes in other potential confounders, about 2 mg/dl total cholesterol increase was associated with an increase of one cup of regular coffee per day (p < 0.001). A dose-response was found among those who decreased regular coffee consumption, those who continued the same dose, and those who increased consumption. The same trend was observed among those who quit drinking regular coffee, those who never drank coffee, and those who started to drink coffee. No change in cholesterol level was found among those continuing to consume the same quantity of regular coffee compared to those who never drank coffee. The change in cholesterol level was not related to consumption of decaffeinated coffee, regular tea, decaffeinated tea, or cola with caffeine. To our knowledge, this is the first follow-up study correlating change in coffee consumption with change in serum cholesterol in a large group of men and women.

Adult↗

PubMed1993

Coffee, tea, and mortality.

Except for conflicting evidence about coffee and risk of coronary disease, coffee and tea are not linked to major causes of death. Because of widespread use of both beverages and limitations of prior studies, concern persists. Using Cox models (ten covariates) we studied relations in 128,934 persons to 4501 subsequent deaths. Except for slightly increased risk from acute myocardial infarction among heavier (> or = 4 cups/d) coffee users (relative risk versus nondrinkers = 1.4, 95% confidence interval = 1.0 to 1.9, P = 0.07), there was no increased risk of mortality for all deaths (relative risk per cup of coffee per day = 0.99, 95% confidence interval = 0.97 to 1.01; relative risk per cup of tea per day = 0.98, 95% confidence interval = 0.96 to 1.00) or major causes in adjusted analyses. Coffee was related to lower risk of liver cirrhosis death (relative risk per cup of coffee per day = 0.77, 95% confidence interval = 0.67 to 0.89). Use of both beverages was related to a lower risk of suicide, progressively lower at higher coffee intake (relative risk per cup of coffee per day = 0.87, 95% confidence interval = 0.77 to 0.98). We conclude that coffee and tea have no overall relation to mortality risk. If coffee increases coronary risk, this is balanced by an unexplained lower risk of other conditions, notably cirrhosis and suicide.

Adult↗

PubMed2005

The effects of coffee consumption on lipid peroxidation and plasma total homocysteine concentrations: a clinical trial.

Despite extensive research, the cardiovascular effects of coffee consumption in humans remain controversial. Our aim was to investigate the excretion of coffee phenols and the effects of filtered coffee consumption on oxidative stress and plasma homocysteine (tHcy) concentration in humans. The study consisted of a multiple-dose clinical supplementation trial and a single-dose study. In the long-term trial, 43 healthy nonsmoking men optionally consumed daily either no coffee, 3 cups (450 mL), or 6 cups (900 mL) of filtered coffee for 3 weeks, while in the short-term study 35 subjects consumed a single dose of 0, 1 (150 mL), or 2 cups (300 mL) of coffee. Long-term consumption of coffee increased the urinary excretion of caffeic and ferulic acid. The change in the total excretion of phenolic acids in 3 and 6 cups groups represented 3.8 and 2.5% of the amount ingested daily. Plasma tHcy concentrations increased nonsignificantly, but the consumption of coffee had neither short-nor long-term effects on lipid peroxidation or the activity of measured antioxidant enzymes. In conclusion, the consumption of filtered coffee does not have any detectable effects on lipid peroxidation in healthy nonsmoking men. The effect of coffee consumption on tHcy concentrations needs further investigation.

Adult↗

PubMed2005

Coffee and type 2 diabetes: from beans to beta-cells.

Coffee consumption has been associated with improved glucose tolerance and a lower risk of type 2 diabetes in diverse populations in the U.S., Europe, and Japan. This review discusses the strength of the evidence, relevant mechanisms, possible implications, and directions for further research. The finding that higher consumption of decaffeinated coffee was associated with a lower risk of type 2 diabetes suggests that coffee constituents other than caffeine play a role. Coffee is a source of several compounds that improved glucose metabolism in animal studies, including the chlorogenic acids and lignans. Further research on phytochemicals in coffee may lead to the identification of novel mechanisms for effects of diet on the development of type 2 diabetes. In addition, knowledge on effects of coffee components may aid in the development or selection of types of coffee with improved health effects. Longer-term randomized intervention studies that test the effects of coffee consumption on glucose tolerance are warranted. Physical activity and weight management should be the mainstay of public health strategies to prevent type 2 diabetes. For individual choices regarding coffee consumption, potential effects of coffee on various health outcomes should be considered.

Adult↗

PubMed1999

Coffee drinking and serum gamma-glutamyltransferase: an extended study of Self-Defense Officials of Japan.

PURPOSE: To examine the effect of coffee drinking on serum gamma-glutamyltransferase (GGT) level in relation to alcohol drinking, smoking, and degree of obesity in middle-aged Japanese men. METHODS: From 1986 to 1994, a total of 7,637 male officials of the Self-Defense Forces of Japan aged 48-59 years received a preretirement health examination. Coffee drinking was ascertained by a self-administered questionnaire, and serum GGT level was measured. After excluding 1,360 men with a possible pathologic condition influencing liver enzyme levels and 182 former alcohol drinkers, effect of coffee drinking on serum GGT was examined by a multiple linear regression model and analysis of variance adjusting for alcohol drinking, smoking, and body mass index (BMI). RESULTS: The adjusted percentage of difference in serum GGT was -4.3 (95% CI = -5.0; -3.5) per cup of coffee. The inverse coffee-GGT relation was most prominent among men drinking > or = 30 ml of ethanol and smoking > or = 15 cigarettes daily; and positive associations of alcohol and smoking with GGT were attenuated by coffee drinking, more clearly among men with BMI > or = 25.00 kg/m2. Adjusted percentages of difference in serum GGT were -2.6% (p = 0.0003) per cup of brewed coffee, and -5.1% (p = 0.0001) per cup of instant coffee, independently of each other. CONCLUSIONS: The present study suggests that coffee consumption may weaken GGT-induction by alcohol, and possibly by smoking. These effect modifications by coffee may differ according to the degree of obesity.

Alcohol Drinking↗

PubMed2005

Coffee, tea and diabetes: the role of weight loss and caffeine.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the effect of weight change on the relationship between coffee and tea consumption and diabetes risk. DESIGN: Prospective cohort study, using data from the First National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey Epidemiologic Follow Up Study. Survival analyses were conducted using 301 selfreported cases of diabetes and eight documented diabetes deaths during an 8.4-y follow-up. SUBJECTS: A total of 7006 subjects aged 32-88 y with no reported history of diabetes were included in the study. RESULTS: For all subjects combined, increases in consumption of ground-caffeinated coffee and caffeine at baseline were followed by decreases in diabetes risk during follow-up. There were significant statistical interactions between age and consumption of caffeine (P=0.02) and ground-caffeinated coffee (P=0.03). Age-stratified analysis showed that the decrease in diabetes risk only applied to < or =60-y-old subjects, for whom the decrease in diabetes risk also obtained for ground-decaffeinated coffee and regular tea. The multivariate hazard ratio (HR) and 95% confidence interval for a 2 cups/day increment in the intake of ground-caffeinated coffee, ground-decaffeinated coffee and regular tea was 0.86 (0.75-0.99), 0.58 (0.34-0.99) and 0.77 (0.59-1.00), respectively. The diabetes risk was negatively related to the consumption in a dose-response manner. There were strong statistical interactions between prior weight change and beverage consumption for < or =60-y-old subjects. Further analysis revealed that the decrease in diabetes risk only applied to those who had lost weight, and that there was a positive dose-response relationship between diabetes risk and weight change. For example, the multivariate HR and 95% confidence interval for >0 vs 0 cups/day of ground-decaffeinated coffee was 0.17 (0.04-0.74), 0.52 (0.19-1.42), 0.77 (0.30-1.96) and 0.91 (0.39-2.14) for subgroups with weight change of < or =0, 0-10, 10-20 and >20 lbs, respectively. There was no significant association between diabetes risk and consumption of instant-caffeinated coffee, instant-decaffeinated coffee or herbal tea. Caffeine intake appeared to explain some, but not all, of the diabetes-risk reduction and weight change. CONCLUSION: The negative relationship between diabetes risk and consumption of ground coffee and regular tea, observed for all NHEFS subjects, actually only applied to nonelderly adults who had previously lost weight.

Adult↗

PubMed2005

Effect of coffee on endothelial function in healthy subjects: the role of caffeine.

Coffee is one of the most widely used pharmacologically active beverages. The present study was designed to evaluate the acute effect of coffee ingestion on endothelial function in healthy individuals, and the potential role of caffeine. We studied 17 healthy young adults (28.9+/-3.0 years old; nine men), who were regular non-heavy coffee drinkers. The endothelial performance was estimated by endothelium-dependent FMD (flow-mediated dilatation) of the brachial artery before and 30, 60, 90 and 120 min after ingestion of a cup of caffeinated coffee (80 mg of caffeine) or the corresponding decaffeinated beverage (< 2 mg of caffeine) in two separate sessions, following a randomized single-blind cross-over design. There was no difference in baseline FMD values between the two sessions [7.78 compared with 7.07% after caffeinated and decaffeinated coffee respectively; P = NS (not significant)]. Caffeinated coffee led to a decline of FMD (7.78, 2.86, 2.12, 4.44 and 4.57% at baseline, 30, 60, 90 and 120 min respectively; P < 0.001). This adverse effect was focused at 30 (P = 0.004) and 60 min (P < 0.001). No significant effect on FMD was found with the decaffeinated coffee session (7.07, 6.24, 5.21, 7.41 and 5.20%; P = NS). The composite effect of the type of coffee consumed over time on FMD was significantly different (P = 0.021). In conclusion, coffee exerts an acute unfavourable effect on the endothelial function in healthy adults, lasting for at least 1 h after intake. This effect might be attributed to caffeine, given that decaffeinated coffee was not associated with any change in the endothelial performance.

Adult↗

PubMed2000

The effect of unfiltered coffee on potential biomarkers for colonic cancer risk in healthy volunteers: a randomized trial.

BACKGROUND: Epidemiologic studies suggest that coffee use might protect against colorectal cancer. Inconsistencies as to the effect of coffee use and colorectal cancer between epidemiologic studies might be related to the type of coffee brew. OBJECTIVE: We studied the effect of unfiltered coffee consumption on putative biomarkers for colonic cancer risk. DESIGN: A total of 64 healthy volunteers (31 men and 33 women), with a mean age of 43 +/- 11 years were randomly assigned to two groups in a crossover design, with two intervention periods of 2 weeks separated by a washout period of 8 weeks. Treatments were 1 L of cafetière (French press) coffee daily or no coffee. At the end of each intervention period, fasting blood samples, colorectal biopsies and 48 h faeces were collected. RESULTS: No effect of coffee on colorectal cell proliferation, assayed by estimating the Proliferating Cell Nuclear Antigen labelling index, was seen. Additionally, no effects were seen on the concentrations of faecal soluble bile acids and colorectal mucosal glutathione S-transferase activity. However, unfiltered coffee significantly increased the glutathione content in the colorectal mucosa by 8% and in plasma by 15%. Other aminothiols in plasma also increased on coffee. CONCLUSION: Unfiltered coffee does not influence the colorectal mucosal proliferation rate, but might increase the detoxification capacity and anti-mutagenic properties in the colorectal mucosa through an increase in glutathione concentration. Whether this effect indeed contributes to a lower colon cancer risk remains to be established.

Adult↗

PubMed2003

Moderate coffee consumption increases plasma glutathione but not homocysteine in healthy subjects.

BACKGROUND: The consumption of unfiltered coffee, containing bioactive diterpenes, causes an increase in plasma homocysteine concentration. A slight increase in plasma homocysteine is also caused by large quantities of filtered coffee. Coffee terpenes also raise plasma glutathione in mice. AIM: To verify the effect of Italian-style coffee consumption on the plasma concentration of glutathione and homocysteine in healthy subjects. METHODS: Twenty-two volunteers consumed five cups of coffee per day for 1 week and maintained their usual diet. Five subjects were enrolled as controls. The intervention trial was preceded and followed by seven coffee-free days. RESULTS: Plasma glutathione increased by 16% (P < 0.05) on coffee consumption, and returned to the original concentration after the washout period. The increase in plasma homocysteine concentration (13% after 1 week of coffee intake) was not significant. No differences in glutathione or homocysteine concentration were observed in the control group. No variation of plasma hydroperoxide concentration was detectable. CONCLUSIONS: A coffee intake regimen, representing the average consumption of coffee drinkers in Italy, increased the plasma concentration of glutathione, but no significant increase in the plasma homocysteine concentration was detected.

Adult↗

PubMed2005

Stimulation of defecation: effects of coffee use and nicotine on rectal tone and visceral sensitivity.

OBJECTIVE: Coffee and cigarette use is believed to induce bowel movements, although the literature is controversial and precise measurements of rectal tone and sensitivity with a barostat have never been performed. The aim of this study was to assess the effects of coffee and nicotine on rectal tone, compliance and sensitivity. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Sixteen healthy volunteers were recruited for the coffee (n = 8) and nicotine (n = 8) experiments. The experiments were randomly performed in a placebo-controlled crossover design on separate days. In the coffee experiment, 280 ml strong coffee or warm water was drunk and in the nicotine experiment, nicotine (2 mg) or placebo was given sublingually. A rectal barostat procedure was carried out. A flaccid bag, mounted on a catheter, was inserted in the rectum. Continuous pressure distension was exerted to register basal visceral sensitivity and compliance. After rectal adaptation, the stimulus was given. Rectal tone was measured for 1 h, after which continuous pressure distension was repeated. RESULTS: Rectal tone increased by 45% 30 min after coffee intake (p = 0.031) and by 30% after water intake (p = 0.032), but the effects of coffee and water were not significantly different. Rectal tone did not change significantly after administration of nicotine (7%) or placebo (10%). There was no difference in compliance and visceral sensitivity between coffee and water or nicotine and placebo. CONCLUSIONS: Both coffee and warm water have an effect on defecation by increasing rectal tone, but nicotine (2 mg) did not affect rectal tone. Coffee and nicotine did not influence sensitivity or compliance.

Adult↗

PubMed1991

Caffeinated and decaffeinated coffee effects on plasma lipoprotein cholesterol, apolipoproteins, and lipase activity: a controlled, randomized trial.

Coffee consumption has been associated with elevated plasma cholesterol. One hundred eighty-one men consumed a standard caffeinated coffee for 2 mo followed by randomization to continue caffeinated coffee (control), change to decaffeinated coffee or no coffee for 2 mo. Plasma low-density-lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol and apolipoprotein B concentrations increased significantly (0.12 +/- 0.65 mmol/L, P less than 0.025; 0.06 +/- 0.12 g/L, P less than 0.0004, respectively) in the group that changed to decaffeinated coffee. In a subgroup (n = 51), post-heparin lipoprotein lipase decreased significantly more (-270 mmol free fatty acids.L-1.h-1, P less than 0.003) in the decaffeinated-coffee group. Resting heart rate and blood pressure did not change significantly. Change from caffeinated to decaffeinated coffee increased plasma LDL cholesterol and apolipoprotein B whereas discontinuation of caffeinated coffee revealed no change. This finding suggests that a coffee component other than caffeine is responsible for the LDL cholesterol, apolipoprotein B, and lipase activity changes reported in this investigation.

Adult↗

PubMed2000

Unfiltered coffee increases plasma homocysteine concentrations in healthy volunteers: a randomized trial.

BACKGROUND: An elevated plasma homocysteine concentration is a putative risk factor for cardiovascular disease. Observational studies have reported an association between coffee consumption and plasma homocysteine concentrations. OBJECTIVE: We studied the effect of coffee consumption on plasma homocysteine in a crossover trial. We used unfiltered coffee so as to include the possible effects of coffee diterpenes, which are removed by filtering. DESIGN: Sixty-four healthy volunteers (31 men and 33 women) with a mean (+/-SD) age of 43 +/- 11 y were randomly assigned to 2 groups. One group (n = 30) drank 1 L unfiltered cafetière (French press) coffee daily for 2 wk. Such coffee is rich in the cholesterol-raising diterpenes kahweol and cafestol. The other group (n = 34) received water, milk, broth, tea, and chocolate drinks instead of coffee. After a washout period of 8 wk, both groups received the alternate intervention for another 2 wk. RESULTS: Consumption of 1 L unfiltered coffee/d for 2 wk significantly raised fasting plasma homocysteine concentrations by 10%, from 12.8 to 14.0 micromol/L. CONCLUSIONS: Unfiltered coffee increases plasma homocysteine concentrations in volunteers with normal initial concentrations. It is unclear whether the effect is caused by the cholesterol-raising diterpenes present exclusively in unfiltered coffee or by factors that are also present in filtered coffee.

Adult↗

PubMed1998

Prevention of colonic aberrant crypt foci and modulation of large bowel microbial activity by dietary coffee fiber, inulin and pectin.

The present experiments were aimed at developing novel dietary fibers to aid in reduction of colon cancer risk. We assessed the effects of coffee (non-fiber fraction), coffee fiber (arabino-galactose polymer) and inulin (oligo-fructose) in male F344 rats using formation of azoxymethane (AOM)-induced aberrant crypt foci (ACF) in the colon as the measure of preventive efficacy (or lack of such). At 5 weeks of age, groups of rats were fed the AIN-76A (control) and experimental diets that contained 1% coffee, 10% coffee fiber, 10% inulin, 10% pectin (positive control for fiber) or 200 p.p.m. piroxicam (a known ACF inhibitor). At 7 weeks of age, all animals were s.c injected with AOM (15 mg/kg body wt) once weekly for 2 weeks. All rats were killed 8 weeks after the last AOM injection and ACF were counted. The contents of the cecum were analyzed for bacterial beta-glucuronidase activity and short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs). Dietary administration of coffee fiber significantly suppressed AOM-induction of colonic ACF, in terms of total number, as well as crypt multiplicity and number of ACF/cm2 colon (P < 0.01-0.001). Inulin diet had no significant effect on total ACF, but had reduced the number of ACF/cm2 (P < 0.05). Whereas coffee had no effect on ACF formation, 10% pectin diet and 200 p.p.m. piroxicam significantly suppressed colonic ACF (P < 0.001) as had been expected. A significant reduction of cecal beta-glucuronidase activity was observed in the rats fed coffee, coffee fiber and pectin diets. Further, coffee fiber, inulin and pectin increased cecal SCFA levels 3- to 5-fold. These results suggest that coffee fiber can prevent colon cancer risk. Further studies are warranted to determine the full potential of this fiber in pre-clinical efficacy studies.

Animals↗

PubMed1981

Case-control studies on the acute effects of coffee upon the risk of myocardial infarction: problems in the selection of a hospital control series.

In the course of evaluating the acute effect of caffeine-containing coffee on the risk of myocardial infarction (MI) among women 30-49 years of age, this study noted appreciable differences in coffee consumption among hospital patients admitted for illnesses not known to be related to coffee use. Among these potential controls, the coffee consumption of patients who had been compelled to hospital by conditions having an acute onset, such as fractures ("acute condition controls") was compared with that of patients admitted for chronic disorders ("chronic condition controls"). The proportion of drinkers of caffeine-containing coffee among 980 acute condition controls (65%) was significantly greater than that among 5835 chronic condition controls (58%) (p less than 0.01); by contrast, the proportion of drinkers of decaffeinated coffee was significantly greater among chronic condition controls (22%) than among acute condition controls (18%) (p less than 0.01). With regard to caffeine-containing coffee, other findings were that the frequency of drinking decreased with increasing contact with medical care in the year before admission; that patients who changed their consumption after discharge tended to give up coffee; and that the proportion of drinkers was greater among women in the community than among the hospital patients. These results suggest that relatively long-standing illness influences against drinking caffeine-containing coffee among women 30-49 years of age. They also suggest that there is an opportunity for overestimation of the relative risk of MI among coffee drinkers in hospital-based studies that use chronic condition controls.

Acute Disease↗

PubMed1985

Coffee, plasma cholesterol, and lipoproteins. A population study in an adult community.

The associations between intake of coffee or decaffeinated coffee and plasma cholesterol and lipoprotein measurements were examined in a probability sample from a defined community of adults. The results were based on 24-hour dietary recall interviews and laboratory measurements carried out in 1972-1974 on 381 women and 320 men conducted as part of the La Jolla Lipid Research Clinic study. Intake of 8+ oz (230+ ml) of coffee per day was reported by 65% of women and 70% of men. Plasma cholesterol increased with increasing coffee drinking in women as follows: 0-7 oz (0-229 ml), 214 mg/dl; 8-32 oz (230-960 ml), 222 mg/dl; and 33+ oz (961+ ml), 234 mg/dl. This trend was significant at p less than 0.01. Almost all of the difference could be accounted for by an increase in low density lipoprotein cholesterol. Plasma cholesterol was not affected by coffee intake in men or by decaffeinated coffee intake in either sex. The results were unaffected by adjustment for age, obesity index, number of cigarettes smoked per day, ml of alcohol consumed per day, oral contraceptive use, regular exercise, daily intake of saturated, monounsaturated, and polyunsaturated fat, polyunsaturated/saturated fat ratio, use of cream in coffee, and use of sugar in coffee. This study confirms the previously reported significant increase in plasma cholesterol and low density lipoprotein levels with increasing coffee intake in women, and demonstrates that the increase is due largely to elevation of low density lipoprotein cholesterol. The reasons for a differential response to coffee in women and men, reported previously and in this study, deserve further investigation.

Adult↗