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PubMed1988

Familial resemblance in energy intake: contribution of genetic and environmental factors.

Total energy intake and intakes of carbohydrate, fat, and protein as well as the percentage of energy derived from these nutrients were calculated from a 3-d dietary record in 1597 subjects living in 375 families of French descent. Familial correlations were computed in pairs of biological relatives and relatives by adoption and used in the path-analysis BETA model to determine the contribution of genetic and nongenetic factors in the familial resemblance observed in energy intake. No significant genetic effect was found for intake of any nutrient tested (h2 less than or equal to 11%) and cultural inheritance was found to be more important than genetic inheritance. Nontransmitted environmental factors, including home environmental effects, were found to account for more than 50% of the variation observed in the energy-intake components. These results suggest that the average genetic influence on nutrient intake is negligible and that nongenetic effects associated mainly with home environmental effects are the major affecters of energy intake.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2003

Validation of energy intake estimated from a food frequency questionnaire: a doubly labelled water study.

OBJECTIVE: The validation of dietary assessment methods is critical in the evaluation of the relation between dietary intake and health. The aim of this study was to assess the validity of a food frequency questionnaire by comparing energy intake with energy expenditure measured with the doubly labelled water method. DESIGN: Total energy expenditure was measured with the doubly labelled water (DLW) method during a 10 day period. Furthermore, the subjects filled in the food frequency questionnaire about 18-35 days after the DLW phase of the study was completed. SUBJECTS: Twenty-one healthy, non-pregnant females volunteered to participate in the study; only 17 subjects completed the study. RESULTS: The group energy intake was on average 10% lower than the energy expenditure, but the difference was not statistically significant. However, there was a wide range in reporting accuracy: seven subjects were identified as acceptable reporters, eight as under-reporters and two were identified as over-reporters. The width of the 95% confidence limits of agreement in a Bland and Altman plot for energy intake and energy expenditure varied from -5 to 3 MJ. CONCLUSION: The data showed that there was substantial variability in the accuracy of the food frequency questionnaire at the individual level. Furthermore, the results showed that the questionnaire was more accurate for groups than individuals.

Adult↗

PubMed1983

Thyroid hormone metabolism after acclimatization to warm or cold temperature under conditions of high or low energy intake.

The separate effects of ambient temperature and energy intake on the metabolism of thyroid hormones in the young pig have been investigated. Piglets were kept singly from 4 weeks of age at 10 or 35 degrees C on a high (H), or low (L) energy intake, such that H = 2L. At the tenth week of age blood samples were taken 16-21 h after the last meal for the determination of plasma concentrations of thyroxine (T4) and 3,5,3'-triiodothyronine (T3). At the end of the tenth week of age the fractional disappearance rate (K) of T4 was determined and finally the K value for T3 was estimated. Plasma concentrations of T4 and T3 were greater in animals on a high intake than in those on a low intake, (P less than 0.02), but the temperature at which the animals lived had no significant effect. The values of K for T4 and T3 were greater at 10 than at 35 degrees C (P less than 0.010 and P less than 0.05), and energy intake had no significant effect. Calculations of the catabolic rates in nmol/kg X h revealed that for T4 the rate was greater at 10 than at 35 degrees C (P less than 0.001) and on a high than on a low intake (P less than 0.01). Similar differences were found between the mean values of T3 with respect to both temperature and energy intake, but the variance was large and they did not reach statistical significance. It is concluded that the metabolism of thyroid hormones is influenced independently by both ambient temperature and energy intake.

Acclimatization↗

PubMed1992

Increased energy intake minimizes weight loss in men at high altitude.

The hypothesis that high-altitude weight loss can be prevented by increasing energy intake to meet energy requirement was tested in seven men, 23.7 +/- 4.3 (SD) yr, taken to 4,300 m for 21 days. Energy intake required to maintain body weight at sea level was found to be 3,118 +/- 300 kcal/day, as confirmed by nitrogen balance. Basal metabolic rate (BMR), determined by indirect calorimetry, increased 27% on day 2 at altitude and then decreased and reached a plateau at 17% above the sea level BMR by day 10. Energy expended during strenuous activities was 37% lower at altitude than at sea level. Fecal excretion of energy, nitrogen, total fiber, and total volatile fatty acids was not significantly affected by altitude. Energy intake at altitude was adjusted after 1 wk, on the basis of the increased BMR, to 3,452 +/- 452 kcal/day. Mean nitrogen balance at altitude was negative (-0.25 +/- 0.71 g/day) before energy intake was adjusted but rose significantly thereafter (0.20 +/- 0.71 and 0.44 +/- 0.66 g/day during weeks 2 and 3). Mean body weight decreased 2.1 +/- 1.0 kg over the 3 wk of the study, but the rate of weight loss was significantly diminished after the increase in energy intake (201 +/- 75 vs. 72 +/- 48 g/day). Individual regression lines drawn through 7-day segments of body weight showed that in four of seven subjects the slopes of body weight were not significantly different from zero after the 2nd wk. Thus weight loss ceased in four of seven men in whom increased BMR at altitude was compensated with increased energy intake.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Adult↗

PubMed1982

The effect of covert changes in energy density of preloads on subsequent ad libitum energy intake in lean and obese human subjects.

1. Covert changes in energy intake were made by giving preloads of disguised energy density three times daily to 14 obese and 6 lean subjects. 2. The preloads contained 2.51 MJ (600 kcal)/d on days 2 and 3 and either 3.77 MJ (900 kcal)/d or 1.26 MJ (300 kcal/d) on days 4 and 5 and 1.26 MJ (300 kcal)/d or 3.77 MJ (900 kcal)/d on days 6 and 7. The order of testing was alternated for each subject. 3. Subsequent energy intake at each meal (lunch, dinner and breakfast) was measured with an automated food-dispensing machine. 4. Overall the obese subjects ate significantly less from the machine, 3.28 +/- 1.89 MJ (785 +/- 452 kcal)/d, than the lean subjects, 6.03 +/- 1.26 MJ (1442 +/- 300 kcal)/d. 5. Both groups of subjects adjusted their energy intake in the right direction to counterbalance the effect of the preloads but the lean subjects changed their intake by an average of 0.74 MJ (176 kcal)/d compared with the obese subjects who changed their intake by an average of 0.29 MJ (70 kcal)/d. 6. Although the lean subjects were better at adjusting their energy intake than the obese subjects, regulation was still imprecise relative to the 2.51 MJ (600 kcal)/d difference in energy intake that was imposed. 7. There were no significant differences in hunger or appetite between subjects or test situations.

Adult↗

PubMed1999

Energy intake and micronutrient intake in elderly Europeans: seeking the minimum requirement in the SENECA study.

OBJECTIVE: To examine energy intake of elderly people participating in the Survey in Europe on Nutrition and the Elderly, a Concerted Action (SENECA) study in relation to the adequacy of micronutrient intake. DESIGN: Data from eight countries on 486 men and 519 women who were 74-79 years old. Dietary intakes of energy, iron, thiamine, riboflavin and pyridoxine were calculated. RESULTS: There was inadequate intake of one or more nutrients in 23.9% of men and 46.8% of women. The prevalence of inadequate intakes decreased gradually with higher energy intakes. Of all people with energy intakes exceeding 1500 kcal, 19% of men and 26% of women still had an inadequate intake of at least one micronutrient. CONCLUSION: We found no single criterion ensuring level of energy intake with an adequate micronutrient supply. The prevalence of an inadequate intake of micronutrients was high at all energy intake levels, especially in women.

Aged↗

PubMed1997

Self-reported dieting: how should we ask? What does it mean? Associations between dieting and reported energy intake.

OBJECTIVES: To determine whether self-reports of dieting to control weight are associated with reported energy intake, how this association varies with the phrasing of questions on dieting behaviors, and whether this association differs by educational level and weight status among adult male and female respondents. METHODS: The study population included 996 women and 227 men, aged 20-45, who volunteered to participate in a weight gain prevention trial. Participants completed surveys at baseline regarding their dieting behaviors and nutritional intake. RESULTS: The association between self-reported dieting and energy intake varied according to the phrasing of the questions assessing dieting behaviors. Multi-item scales and nonambiguous single-item questions (e.g., "current dieting") were more strongly associated with reported energy intake than more general single-item questions (e.g., "doing anything to lose weight"). Overweight dieters reported lower energy intake than overweight nondieters. Among nonoverweight persons, associations between dieting and energy intake were not significant. The association between dieting and energy intake did not differ by educational level among women. Among men, dieting predicted lower energy intake in those with low educational levels, although the number of men with low educational levels who were dieting was small. Reported dieting was not associated with energy intake among men with higher educational levels. DISCUSSION: Associations between self-reports of dieting and reported energy intake vary according to the phrasing of specific questions about dieting, gender, education, and weight status. These factors should be taken into account in the design of instruments for measuring these behaviors and in the interpretation of results, especially across studies using different methodologies.

Adult↗

PubMedDate not supplied

[The effect of energy density and viscosity of porridges on the energy intake of infants].

It has been known for at least 25 years that high energy density and low viscosity are desirable attributes of complementary foods. However, the effects of increasing energy density and reducing viscosity of gruels on infant energy intake have only been studied in the last 10 years. Works published between 1986 and 1992 were carried out with infants randomly selected in urban slums or rural areas in India and Tanzania. When gruels are given in a single meal, all of them showed higher energy intake with both high energy-dense and low viscosity gruels. But these studies do not give information about the effects of these gruels on daily energy intake from gruels and on total daily energy intake when they are given with feeding frequencies corresponding to traditional weaning practices. Works published since 1992 were conducted among infants suffering from or recovering from acute diarrhoea or severe malnutrition. A positive effect of increasing energy density of gruels was observed not only on energy intake from gruels but also on total energy intake. On the other hand, effectiveness of reducing viscosity was not clearly demonstrated. Further studies are required, particularly to identify the conditions for which high energy dense gruels prepared from bulk-reduced starchy staples are able to significantly improve infant energy intake.

Diarrhea, Infantile↗

PubMed1994

Detection of underestimated energy intake in young adults.

BACKGROUND: Critical evaluation of energy intake data from dietary studies is difficult but important. A simple approach has been suggested using minimum cutoff limits for the ratio of energy intake to basal metabolic rate as predicted from body weight (EI/BMR(est.)). This study investigates the potential of this particular approach in young subjects. METHODS: Energy intake during strictly controlled dietary intervention studies (2-6 weeks or 8 months) was compared with reported intake before the study started (7 days' weighed food records). Participants were 48 men and 22 women, 20-30 years. RESULTS: Mean EI/BMR(est.) values during the intervention study were 1.92 for men and 1.77 for women. Reported intakes before the study were only slightly lower (women 8%, P < 0.05, men 5%, P > 0.05). Two EI/BMR(est.) limits were tested. Smaller underestimations could be detected by applying calculated cutoff limits based on average EI/BMR(est.) values from the intervention studies instead of published limits assuming a low physical activity level (6% versus 22% underestimation of group intake). CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that for the evaluation of energy intake of young adults it is more meaningful to use EI/BMR(est.) cutoff limits which assume a moderate, instead of a low, average physical activity level.

Adult↗

PubMed2004

Growth, energy intake, and meal pattern in five-year-old children considered as poor eaters.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate whether 5-year-old children considered poor eaters differ from their peers regarding growth, intake of energy and nutrients, or meal pattern. Study design Parental evaluations of children's (n=494) eating at age 5 years were collected using questionnaires, and energy and nutrient intakes and meal pattern of the children were assessed using 4-day food records. Weight and height were measured at birth and at ages 7 and 13 months, and 2, 3, 4, and 5 years. Of the children 30.2% (149) were poor eaters according to the parents. The rest of the sample (n=345) formed the comparison group. RESULTS: Poor eaters were on average lighter and shorter at birth (P=.026 and P=.020, respectively), and at age 5 years (P<.001 for both weight and height) than the comparison children. At age 5 years the poor eaters on average received less of their daily total energy from warm meals (P=.044) and more from snacks (P=.013) than the comparison group, but the mean daily weight-adjusted intake of energy showed no difference between the groups (P=.153). CONCLUSIONS: There appears not to be reason for serious concern about growth and diet of preschool-aged children considered as poor eaters by parents.

Body Height↗

PubMed2002

Systematic errors in middle-aged women's estimates of energy intake: comparing three self-report measures to total energy expenditure from doubly labeled water.

PURPOSE: To evaluate energy intake (EI) derived from a food frequency questionnaire (FFQ), seven-day dietary recall (7DDR), and seven 24-hour dietary recall interviews (24HR) for reporting errors associated with social desirability and social approval. METHODS: The FFQ and 7DDR were administered once before and once after a 14-day metabolic period during which total energy expenditure was determined using the doubly labeled water method (TEE(dlw)). Seven 24HR were conducted over the 14-day period. Data obtained from 80 healthy women (mean age = 49.1 years) were fit to linear regression models in which the EI estimates were the dependent variables and estimates of social desirability and social approval traits, body mass index [weight (kg)/ height (m)(2)], and TEE(dlw) were fit as independent variables. RESULTS: indicated that in college-educated women there was an underestimate associated with social desirability on the FFQ (-42.24 kcal/day/point on the social desirability scale; 95% CI:-75.48, -9.00). For college-educated women with an average social desirability score ( approximately 17 points) this would equal an underestimate of 507 kcal/day compared to women with the minimum score (4 points). The 7DDR was associated with a differential effect of social approval when comparing by education; i.e., there was a difference of 36.35 kcal/day/point between the two groups (-14.69 in women with >/=college and 21.66 in women with <college) (95% CI: 10.25, 62.45). CONCLUSIONS: Social desirability and social approval distort energy intake estimates from structured questionnaires, in a manner that appears to vary by educational status. Results observed have important implications for subject recruitment, data collection, and for methods of detection and control of biases in epidemiologic studies.

Adult↗

PubMed2002

Habitual meal frequency and energy intake regulation in partially temporally isolated men.

OBJECTIVE: Assessment of a possible relationship between habitual as well as manipulated meal frequency, blood glucose pattern, macronutrient- and energy intake (EI), and energy intake regulation in partially temporally isolated men. DESIGN: A partially temporally isolated within-subject design assessing energy intake regulation in spite of intervention. Intervention consisted of manipulating meal frequency by offering iso-energetic (1 MJ) preloads high in fat or carbohydrate (CHO), with the same energy density. We have previously shown that after a high-CHO preload, inter-meal-interval was 1 h, while after a high-fat preload intermeal-interval was 2 h. SUBJECTS: Twenty healthy young (18-31 y) normal weight (body mass index (BMI): 22.8+/-1.9 kg/m(2)) men. MEASUREMENTS: On two separate days, each after a different preload: subsequent subjects' responses to the preload, eg manipulated meal frequency; continuous blood glucose levels and blood glucose patterns: macronutrient composition of food intake; EI; appetite ratings; and taste perception. From controlled 3-day food intake diaries: habitual meal frequency; EI; and macronutrient-intake. RESULTS: Accuracy of energy intake regulation is expressed as minimizing the difference in energy intake, despite intervention. The difference in 24 h EI on the two test days after the preloads (r(2)=0.56; P<0.001) was a function of habitual meal frequency. Variation in energy intake was primarily explained by habitual meal frequency (r(2)=0.76; P<0.0001). Adding macronutrient composition and number of blood glucose declines to this increased the explained variation to 86 and 96%, respectively. Percentage energy from CHO or from fat explained the variation in habitual meal frequency (r(2)=0.84; P<0.0001). Adding the total number of blood-glucose declines to this increased the explained variation to 88%, and adding average baseline blood glucose levels, sweetness perception and hunger suppression during preload consumption increased the explained variation to 91%. Manipulated meal frequency was related to habitual meal frequency (r(2)=0.86; P<0.0001) and was a function of the number of transient and dynamic blood glucose declines (r(2)=0.74; P<0.0001). CONCLUSION: Habitual meal frequency is of greater significance in energy intake regulation in healthy young men than manipulated meal frequency. Healthy young men with a high habitual meal frequency showed lower 24 h EI, and a smaller difference in EI after macronutrient specific preloads, compared to those with a low habitual meal frequency, thus showing a more accurate energy intake regulation. Habitual meal frequency is based upon a cluster of related factors including macronutrient composition of the food, sweetness perception, hunger suppression, blood glucose declines and average baseline blood glucose levels.

Adaptation, Physiological↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Maximum daily energy intake: it takes time to lift the metabolic ceiling.

Conventionally, maximum capacities for energy assimilation are presented as daily averages. However, maximum daily energy intake is determined by the maximum metabolizable energy intake rate and the time available for assimilation of food energy. Thrush nightingales (Luscinia luscinia) in migratory disposition were given limited food rations for 3 d to reduce their energy stores. Subsequently, groups of birds were fed ad lib. during fixed time periods varying between 7 and 23 h per day. Metabolizable energy intake rate, averaged over the available feeding time, was 1.9 W and showed no difference between groups on the first day of refueling. Total daily metabolizable energy intake increased linearly with available feeding time, and for the 23-h group, it was well above suggested maximum levels for animals. We conclude that both intake rate and available feeding time must be taken into account when interpreting potential constraints acting on animals' energy budgets. In the 7-h group, energy intake rates increased from 1.9 W on the first day to 3.1 W on the seventh day. This supports the idea that small birds can adaptively increase their energy intake rates on a short timescale.

Animals↗

PubMed2005

Diet energy density and energy intake in palliative care cancer patients.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: Anorexia and cachexia are frequent in advanced cancer. Energy density may be important in the control of energy intake; however, current data are derived from studies in healthy or obese populations and there is no agreed definition and methods of calculation. We studied energy density and energy intake in a group of palliative cancer patients and explored which method of energy density calculation that yielded the highest determination coefficient of energy intake. METHODS: Energy density was calculated from 259 food records using four methods, differing in the types of food and beverages included in the analysis. Association between energy density and energy intake was tested using regression analysis. RESULTS: The determination coefficient for total energy intake was: 0.181, 0.148, 0.222, and 0.211 for methods 1-4, respectively (P for all <0.001). In relation to energy per kg body weight and resting energy expenditure, methods 3 and 1 yielded the highest determination coefficient, R2 = 0.164 and 0.184, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: We found a positive association between diet energy density and energy intake. The method used when calculating energy density had limited impact on this association. When calculating energy density all food and beverages should be included in the analysis.

Adult↗

PubMed1999

Adaptation to low energy intakes: the responses and limits to low intakes in infants, children and adults.

Reduction in energy intake below the acceptable level of requirement for an individual results in a series of physiological and behavioural responses, which are considered as an adaptation to the low energy intake. This ability of the human body to adapt to a lowering of the energy intake is without doubt beneficial to the survival of the individual. However, what is more controversial is the view held by some that the body can metabolically adapt in a beneficial manner to a lowered intake and consequently that the requirements for energy are variable given the same body size and composition and physical activity levels. Much of this confusion is the result of considerable evidence from studies conducted in well-nourished adults who, for experimental or other reasons, have lowered their intakes and consequently demonstrated an apparently enhanced metabolic efficiency resulting from changes in metabolic rates which are disproportionate to the changes in body weight. Similar increases in metabolic efficiency are not readily seen in individuals who on long-term marginal intakes, probably from childhood, have developed into short-statured, low-body-weight adults with a different body composition. It would thus appear that the generally used indicator of metabolic efficiency in humans, that is a reduced oxygen consumption per unit fat free mass, is fraught with problems since it does not account for variations in contributions from sub-compartments of the fat free mass which include those with high metabolism at rest such as brain and viscera and those with low metabolism at rest such as muscle mass. Metabolic rate per unit fat free mass thus, does not reflect true variations in metabolic efficiency and is due largely to variations in body composition. This finding combined with the evidence that behavioural adaptation in habitual physical activity patterns which occurs on energy restriction is not necessarily beneficial to the individual raises doubts about the role of adaptation to low intakes in determining one's requirement for energy. The evidence is overwhelming that both in children and adults, changes in body size and composition as well as in levels of habitual physical activity may be the most important consequences of a lowered energy intake and cannot be assumed to be a part of a beneficial adaptation that influences energy requirements.

Adaptation, Physiological↗

PubMed1999

The effects of swimming and running on energy intake during 2 hours of recovery.

OBJECTIVE: To determine energy intake in the 2 hrs after swimming (S) and running (R) at the same relative exercise intensity and duration (71.8 +/- 2.5% VO2max; 45 min) to evaluate whether a difference in recovery energy intake could explain the greater body fat observed in swimmers relative to runners. METHODS EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: this was a randomized crossover design. SETTING: running exercise was conducted on a motorized treadmill (Quinton) while swimming was conducted in a 45.7 m pool. PARTICIPANTS: eight well-trained competitive male triathletes participated in this investigation. INTERVENTIONS: subjects were blinded to the purpose of the study and swam and ran on separate occasions for 45 min at 71.8 +/- 2.5% of VO2max. Subjects were then placed in a room with a variety of foods and beverages for 2 hrs after R and S. MEASURES: energy intake (kJ/2 hrs and kcal/2 hrs) was determined by weighing and measuring the food remaining in the room after 2 hrs of postexercise recovery. Expired gases, heart rates, and Ratings of Perceived Exertion were obtained at 15 min intervals throughout exercise. Blood samples for serum glucose and lactate were obtained preexercise and immediately, 15 min, and 135 min postexercise. Perceived hunger and thirst ratings were obtained after the subjects were seated in the room containing the food. RESULTS: Serum glucose was significantly (p < or = 0.05) higher after R compared to S immediately after exercise (5.4 +/- 0.3 mmol/L for R and 4.2 +/- 0.1 mmol/L for S) but no significant differences were observed for hunger using a five point Likert scale (3.3 +/- 0.3 for R and 3.4 +/- 0.3 for S), energy intake (4584 +/- 611 kJ/2 hrs; 1095 +/- 146 kcal/2 hrs for R and 4383 +/- 484 kJ/2 hrs; 1047 +/- 116 kcal for S) or blood lactate. CONCLUSION: The type of exercise, swimming or running, did not significantly influence energy intake during 2 hours of postexercise recovery.

Adult↗

PubMed1997

Intrahousehold allocation of energy intake among children under five years and their parents in rural Bangladesh.

OBJECTIVE: This study assesses intrahousehold allocation of energy in rural Bangladesh and tests the hypothesis that, when daily energy intake is adjusted for energy expenditure, no age or gender bias will be apparent in intrahousehold energy allocation. DESIGN: Data were collected at two-month intervals over a one year study. SETTING: Four villages in Matlab Thana, rural Bangladesh. SUBJECTS: Two hundred and seven children up to 5 y of age and their 145 mothers and 123 fathers. INTERVENTIONS: Data included six measurements of observed 24 h dietary energy intake and physical activity recorded from waking to sleeping. Total daily energy expenditure was derived using the factorial method. RESULTS: Women's energy intake ranged from 75-88% of the FAO/WHO recommended energy intake over the six periods of data collection, significantly less (P < 0.0001) than the men's (range 89-114%). Although the women had moderate levels of physical activity, frequent pregnancies and long lactation periods increased their energy needs. Among children no longer breast fed, energy consumption, unadjusted for energy expenditure, provided 86-108% of the FAO/WHO recommended energy intake by weight. CONCLUSIONS: Women consistently received less of their energy requirements than either their children or their husbands.

Adult↗

PubMed2006

Non-Hispanic white and Hispanic elementary school children's self-regulation of energy intake.

BACKGROUND: Preschool-aged children consistently self-regulate energy intake by adjusting food intake to reflect the energy density of the diet. However, only select adults demonstrate self-regulation skills related to energy density cues. OBJECTIVE: The objective was to examine the developmental characteristics of non-Hispanic white and Hispanic children's self-regulation of energy intake and to determine whether individual differences in the precision of food intake regulation were related to the children's anthropometric measures. DESIGN: Three hundred forty-two 5-12-y-old children were recruited from 2 schools, one school that enrolled predominantly non-Hispanic white children (n = 148) and another school in a Hispanic neighborhood (n = 194). The children ate 2-part meals, which consisted of a preload and a main meal. The preloads were fruit-flavored drinks that were either high (625 kJ) or low (12.5 kJ) in energy density. The children's food intake at the meal was measured and energy intake was estimated. An eating Compensation Index (COMPX) score, which reflected the children's ability to regulate energy intake, was used to predict the children's adiposity. RESULTS: Both non-Hispanic white and Hispanic children showed evidence of incomplete compensation, with a mean (+/-SEM) COMPX score of 48.6 +/- 6.4%. No significant ethnicity or sex differences in the children's overall COMPX scores were observed; however, the children's COMPX scores decreased with age (P < 0.05). Maternal body mass index was the best predictor of the children's weight status. CONCLUSION: Children aged 5-12 y show individual variation in their responsiveness to energy density cues; the responsiveness declines with increasing age.

Anthropometry↗