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Accurate measurement of temperature and humidity in the breathing circuit can be a difficult task. This article introduces basic humidity concepts, outlines the problems that are unique to the breathing circuit, and describes the various methods that are available to measure temperature and humidity. Recommendations are made on how to measure temperature and humidity in four commonly encountered situations.
The effect of temperature and relative humidity on dengue virus propagation in the mosquito as one of the possible contributing factors to dengue hemorrhagic fever (DHF) outbreaks was studied. Ae. aegypti mosquitos were reared under standard conditions and inoculated intrathoracically with dengue virus. Virus propagation in the mosquitos was determined at the temperature and relative humidity of all 3 seasons of Yangon and for the simulated temperature and relative humidity of Singapore. The virus propagation was detected by direct fluorescent antibody technique (DFAT) with mosquito head squash and the virus titer was determined by plaque forming unit test (PFUT) in baby hamster kidney-21 cells. The results show that the infected mosquitos kept under the conditions of the rainy season and under the simulated conditions of Singapore had a significantly higher virus titer (p=<0.05) when compared with the other 2 seasons of Yangon. So it is thought that the temperature and relative humidity of the rainy season of Yangon and that of Singapore favors dengue virus propagation in the mosquito and is one of the contributing factors to the occurence of DHF outbreaks.
The moisture sorption isotherm of amorphous spray-dried aluminum hydroxycarbonate (SDAHC) at 25°C revealed that moisture sorption increased sharply when the relative humidity exceeded 80%. The physical and chemical stability of SDAHC was studied for 1 year at 25°C and 0, 11, 54, 84, or 100% RH. The results were interpreted to reveal that two mechanisms affect the properties of SDAHC at 25°C. The sample stored at 0% RH did not exhibit any significant changes during the 1-year study period. The surface area and rate of acid neutralization decreased when samples were stored at 11 or 54% RH, but the material remained amorphous. This change is believed to be due to aggregation and cementation of particles. Much larger changes in surface area and the rate of acid neutralization occurred in the samples aged at 84 or 100% RH. Under these humidity conditions, polymorphic transformations occurred in addition to aggregation and cementation. X-ray diffraction indicated that microcrystalline boehmite was an intermediate phase. The stable polymorph was bayerite, which is believed to form due to the high surface pH produced by water sorption at 84 or 100% RH. The moisture sorption isotherm was useful in identifying the humidity conditions which resulted in high moisture sorption. Polymorphic transformations were only detected when the SDAHC was aged under these humidity conditions.
We have examined the relationship between dynamic surface properties of aqueous SDS solutions and foam film stability by observing the dynamic surface tension (gammat ), elongation of the lamellae (L lamellae ), and the thickness of the lamellae measured by FT-IR. Three foam film models were used by controlling such factors as the Marangoni effect by changing the SDS concentration, the disjoining pressure with the addition of electrolytes, and the surface viscosity with the addition of glycerin. In order to obtain information about the most effective factor in foam film stability, the lifetime of these films was measured under the circumstances of low relative humidity, at which vigorous fluctuation occured in the foam film. Foam film stability was found to be remarkably enhanced by the Marangoni effect and surface shear viscosity in a thin aqueous film at a relative humidity between 60 and 75%. Under these conditions, mild fluctuation would occur in the films. On the other hand, foam film stability was found to be maintained by the disjoining pressure in a thin aqueous film at the humidity below 60%. Under these conditions, vigorous fluctuation would occur in the foam film. It is concluded that foam film stability of an ionic surfactant solution mainly depends on the disjoining pressure which generates a repulsion force between the two surfaces in contrast to the vigorous fluctuation induced by humidity reduction.
The low-humidity IB crystal form of aspartame (L-alphaaspartyl-L-phenylalanine methyl ester) is prepared via humidity-induced transition from the highly hydrated IA crystal form and is used widely as a sweetener. The crystal structure of the low-humidity IB form is determined at 1.05 A resolution (0.476 A(-1) in maximum sintheta/lambda) from an extremely fine fibrous crystal using synchrotron radiation. There are three aspartame molecules and two water molecules in the asymmetric unit of the monoclinic space group P2(1). Each aspartame molecule adopts an almost identical extended conformation which is commonly observed in other crystal forms of aspartame. Three aspartame molecules are assembled into a triangular trimer, and trimer units are stacked along the b-axis via hydrogen-bonding and electrostatic interactions in the main chains and also via hydrophobic contacts in the phenyl side-chains. Six trimer units are related by pseudo 6(1)-screw axis symmetry and form a hydrophilic channel at their center. The hydrophilic channel in the IB form contains only four water molecules in the unit cell, compared with 16 in the IA form. Although the IB form exhibits a trimer structure similar to that of the IA form, one aspartame molecule is rotated by approximately equals 20 degrees from the orientation in the IA form. This arrangement of the molecule implies that the humidity-induced transition is accompanied by a flapping motion of its methyl ester group. These structural differences may imply the stepwise transition from the IA to the IB forms.
Tetragonal crystals of hen egg white lysozyme undergo a reversible transformation, accompanied by loss of water, when the relative humidity of the environment is reduced to about 90%. The structure of the low humidity form has been analyzed, using x-ray data collected at 88% relative humidity, in order to explore the variability in protein hydration caused by a change in the amount of water surrounding the protein molecule and the consequent conformational perturbations in the molecule. The structure has been refined by the restrained least-squares method to an R value of 0.162 for 6269 observed reflections in the 10-2.1-A resolution shell. The refined structure provides interesting examples for the variability in helical parameters, the role of interactions involving side chains and water in the stabilization of secondary structural features, and favorable specific hydration sites. The protein molecule as a whole moves slightly in the low humidity form from its position in the native crystals. The hydration shell tends to move along with the protein. Significant changes, however, occur in the hydration shell. These changes cause structural perturbations in the enzyme molecule, which are most pronounced in regions involved in substrate binding.
OBJECTIVE: To study the relationship of humidity and the rate of lens opacity formation during fluid-air exchange using an animal model. METHODS: Vitrectomy and fluid-air exchange was carried out using 16 eyes of 8 pigmented rabbits. One eye of each rabbit was exposed to dry air and the fellow eye received humidified air using an intraocular air humidifier. In each case, the percent humidity of the intraocular air was measured using an in-line hygrometer. Elapsed time from initial air entry to lens feathering was recorded for each eye, with the surgeon-observer unaware of the percent humidity of the air infusion. RESULTS: In each rabbit, use of humidified air resulted in a delay in lens feathering (P<.02), with an overall increase in time to feathering of 80% for humidified air vs room air. CONCLUSIONS: Use of a humidifier during fluid-air exchange prolongs intraoperative lens clarity in the rabbit model, suggesting that humidified air should prolong lens clarity during phakic fluid-air exchange in patients. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Use of humidified air during vitrectomy and fluid-air exchange may retard the intraoperative loss of lens clarity, promoting better visualization of the posterior segment and enhancing surgical performance.
This study investigates three topics: (1) interobserver measurement error in craniometry, (2) the effects of humidity on craniometric measurements, and (3) the current status of estimators of measurement precision in craniometry and anthropometry. The results of the three-observer error analysis based on 24 linear measurements taken on 47 crania indicate that minor idiosyncratic variations in measurement technique can lead to high levels of statistical discrimination among the data produced by the different observers. The results of the humidity experiment substantiate the contention that increasing levels of relative humidity are associated with cranial expansion. The results of the comparison of 11 univariate precision estimators suggest that the combination of percentage agreement, the mean absolute difference, and Fisher's nonparametric sign test can give an instructive picture of the frequency, magnitude, and directionality of measurement imprecision. Information on the comparability of technique and measurement precision can then be used in the variable selection process prior to the application of multivariate statistical procedures to strengthen the substantive interpretation of craniometric data.
The hyperthermic response to exercise in a warm (30 degrees C), humid (80% relative humidity) environment was obtained for 27 men who exhibited a wide range of body physique in terms of the mesomorphy component of somatotype. Increase in tympanic temperature (Yty) was significantly dependent on mesomorphy rating (X) according to the regression equation Yty = -0.390 + 0.088X. Increase in rectal temperature (Yre) was also significantly dependent on mesomorphy rating according to the equation Yre = -0.100 + 0.066X. The hyperthermic response was significantly correlated with other measures of physique, including ectomorphy, surface area/weight ratio, and body weight, but was not correlated with fatness or fitness. The results support the generalization that during exercise in a warm, humid environment individual differences in heat strain can be highly dependent on physique, especially if fitness and fatness are similar. In this context, mesomorphy appears to provide the optimum description of physique variation. Individuals with a mesomorphy rating greater than 7 warrant designation as being at high risk for heat intolerance during exercise in environments that significantly impair the rate of body heat loss.
The hyperthermic response to exercise in a warm (30 degrees C), humid (80% relative humidity) environment was obtained for 23 prepubertal males. After the initial increase of core temperatures (tympanic and rectal) to elevated set points, further hyperthermia was minimal and was unrelated to any physique variable except for the case of endomorphy, which was weakly correlated with hyperthermia at the rectal site. This result for boys is attributed to the combination of small body size (relative to adults) and absence of pronounced, age-dependent muscular development as evidenced by low rating and small variation of the mesomorphy component of somatotype. Both of these factors were associated with a high surface area to weight ratio compared to adults, which facilitated heat loss. It is concluded that prepubertal males thermoregulate efficiently during moderate exercise in a warm, humid environment. Other than cases of obesity, variation in physique is not an important consideration for assessing the risk of heat strain.
Calibration of the Abawerk osteometric board was checked in varying conditions of relative humidity. The paper scale of the board expands in high relative humidity. Measuring errors as great as 3.5 mm may result when using the board in humid environments.
This report details the observation of (a) the intact double helix of DNA at 0% relative humidity in poly(dA).poly(dT) and poly(dA-dT).poly(dA-dT) films, (b) the fractal-like growth of DNA crystals in films of poly(dA).poly(dT), and (c) poly(dA).poly(dT) with adenines in the B form and thymines in the A form. Observation (a) is based on the behavior of the middle ir signature of double-helical base stacking, the 1714 cm-1 peak, at low water activity. This observation is modeled as a trapping of water in the polycrystalline part of these films. We interpret the glycosidic region of the middle ir spectra of the polycrystalline films of poly(dA).poly(dT) at 0% relative humidity to indicate that at least part of the adenine strand in is the B conformation and the thymine strand is in the A form, whereas previous assignments of poly(dA).poly(dT) films at 75% relative humidity indicated the opposite strand conformation assignment [E. Taillandier et al. (1987) Biochemistry, Vol. 26 p. 3361].
The suitability of butyl rubber-stoppered vials was compared with that of ampoules for the storage of freeze-dried biological materials under a variety of temperature and humidity conditions using alkaline phosphatase as a model. Immediately after freeze-drying, alkaline phosphatase activity in vials and ampoules was similar but decreased at temperatures of 37 degrees C, 45 degrees C and at cycling temperatures with high relative humidities over the 12-month test period, with the least activity in vials with untreated stoppers. By the end of the study at 12 months post-preparation, moisture levels were lowest (0.4%) in the vials where stoppers had been treated with industrial methylated spirit and air-dried, intermediate (1.0%) in DIN ampoules and highest and most variable (1-4%) in vials with untreated stoppers. There was no apparent exchange between the external atmosphere and that within the vials via the stoppers and the moisture in the vials with untreated stoppers appeared to have originated from the stoppers themselves. It was concluded that the use of vials with treated stoppers was almost as effective as the use of DIN ampoules for the freeze-drying and storage of alkaline phosphatase activity under a range of temperatures and humidities. Fluctuating temperatures were more detrimental to alkaline phosphatase activity than continuous storage at a single high temperature.
Eight young, sedentary men (aged 34 years, SD 3) and six older moderately active, unacclimated men (aged 57 years, SD 2) walked on a treadmill at 30% of their maximum oxygen consumption up to 3.5 h in a thermoneutral [dry bulb temperature (Td) 21 degrees C, relative humidity (r.h.) 43%)], a warm humid (Tdb 30 degrees C, r.h. 80%) and a hot dry (Tdb 40 degrees C, r.h. 20%) environment while wearing ordinary working clothes (0.7 clo). Their oxygen consumption, heart rate (fc), rectal (Tre) and mean skin temperature (Tsk), sweat rate (SR), and evaporative rate (ER) were measured during the tests. The ratings of thermal sensation (TS) and perceived exertion (RPE) were assessed using standard scales. In the heat stress tests, the number of experiments discontinued did not significantly differ between the two groups. The mean levels and end-exercise values of Tre, Tsk, fc, TS and RPE were not significantly different between the young and older subjects in any of the environments. In the warm humid environment, however, the Tre and RPE of the older subjects increased continuously (P less than 0.05) during the test compared to the young subjects. No significant difference between the groups was observed in SR or in ER. In the hot dry environment, however, the ER of older men increased more slowly compared to the young men. In spite of some time-related differences observed in Tre, RPE, and ER, the older subjects did not exhibit higher fc during exercise in the heat, they were not more hyperthermic and their performance times were similar to the young subjects.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)
The present study was designed to determine the relative importance of individual characteristics such as maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max), adiposity, DuBois body surface area (AD), surface to mass ratio (AD: mass) and body mass, for the individual's reaction to humid heat stress. For this purpose 27 subjects (19 men, 8 women), with heterogeneous characteristics (VO2max 1.86-5.28 1.min-1; fat% 8.0%-31.9%; mass 49.8-102.1 kg; AD 1.52-2.33 m2) first rested (30 min) and then exercised (60 W for 1 h) on a cycle ergometer in a warm humid climate (35 degrees C, 80% relative humidity). Their physiological responses at the end of exercise were analysed to assess their relationship with individual characteristics using a stepwise multiple regression technique. Dependent variables (with ranges) included final values of rectal temperature (Tre 37.5-39.0 degrees C), mean skin temperature (Tsk 35.7-37.5 degrees C), body heat storage (S 3.2-8.1 J.g-1), heart rate (HR 100-172 beat.min-1), sweat loss (397-1403 g), mean arterial blood pressure (BPa, 68-96 mmHg), forearm blood flow (FBF, 10.1-33.9 ml.100ml-1.min-1) and forearm vascular conductance (FVC = FBF/BPa, 0.11-0.49 ml.100ml-1.min-1.mmHg-1). The Tre, Tsk and S were (34%-65%) determined in the main by VO2max or by exercise intensity expressed as a percentage of VO2max (% VO2max). For Tre, AD: mass ratio also contributed to the variance explained, with about half the effect of VO2max. For Tsk, fat% contributed to the variance explained with about two-third the effect of VO2max. Total body sweat loss was highly dependent (50%) on body size (AD or mass) with regular activity level having a quarter of the effect of body size on sweat loss. The HR, similar to Tre, was determined by VO2max (48%-51%), with less than half the effect of AD or AD:mass (20%). Other circulatory parameters (FBF, BPa, FVC) showed little relationship with individual characteristics (< 36% of variance explained). In general, the higher the VO2max and/or the bigger the subject, the lower the heat strain observed. The widely accepted concept, that body core temperature is determined by exercise intensity expressed as % VO2max and sweat loss by absolute heat load, was only partially supported by the results. For both variables, other individual characteristics were also shown to contribute.
Recent studies have shown the relevance of air humidity to the provocation of bronchoconstriction by running. The present study was undertaken to ascertain whether the humid air breathed during swimming could explain the protective effect of swimming on the asthmatic. Nine asthmatic children 9--15 years old swam while inspiring dry (15--35% R.H.) or humid (80--90% R.H.) air administered in a random order, a week separating the two sessions. The exercise challenge was an 8-min tethered swim at a metabolic rate (VO2) of 29 ml.kg-1.min-1, minute ventilation (VE) of 34 L.min-1, and a heart rate (HR) of 161 beats.min-1. Ambient air and water temperature were 28 +/- 2 degrees C and 27 +/- 2 degrees C, respectively. Pulmonary functions were tested pre and post swimming. Exercise VE, VO2 and HR were similar under the two conditions. No reduction in any of the pulmonary functions (FVC,FEV1.0,MMEFR,MBC) was found after 5 and 10 minutes following the swimming exercise in either of the conditions. In contrast, a treadmill run of similar metabolic and ventilatory intensity induced bronchoconstriction when room air was dried to 25--30% R.H. It is suggested that, unlike running, swimming is of low asthmogenicity even when inspired air is dried to 25--30% at neutral temperatures.
In 2 replicated factorial experiments, 7-h climate chamber exposures were used to study the responses of adult NZW rabbits to a range of elevated temperatures and humidities. At 18 mm Hg water vapour pressure, 23.8 degrees C was well tolerated, rectal temperature (RT) and respiration rate (RR) averaging 38.6 +/- 0.3 degrees C and 82.9 +/- 15.5 breaths/min, respectively. Both parameters were elevated (P less than 0.001) at 32.2 degrees, 37.8 degrees and 43.3 degrees C. RT and RR reached plateau levels of 39.5-40.1 degrees C and 410-460/min at 32.2 degrees C, which was tolerated for the full 7-h test period. Test temperatures of 37.8 degrees and 43.3 degrees C, on the other hand, could be tolerated for only 80 and 40 min respectively, before RT reached the safe upper limit of 41.7 degrees C. Final RR values at 37.8 degrees and 43.3 degrees C were 701.6 +/- 42.7 and 812 +/- 55.1/min, respectively. In a 34.5 degrees C atmosphere a humidity of 21 mm Hg water vapour pressure was classified as "dry", and was tolerated for 323 +/- 123 min. RT and RR increased by 0.6 degrees C and 316/min during the first 20 min of exposure (P less than 0.05). Thereafter both parameters increased progressively, but with no significant differences between successive recording periods, until RR reached 550.3 +/- 88.8/min at 41.7 degrees C RT. Humidities of 25, 29 and 33 mm Hg water vapour pressure were, on the other hand, classified as "wet" and were tolerated for only 92 +/- 22, 81 +/- 16 and 119 +/- 50 min, respectively.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)
Twenty bisected grains of wheat infested with five pairs of the three commonest British grain-storage mites, Acarus siro L., Glycyphagus destructor (Shrank) and Tyrophagus longior (Gervais), were examined every week for 20 weeks. Mite populations, the resulting damage to germ and endosperm, and visible fungal growth were observed at 20 degrees C and relative humidities (r.h.) of 90% and 75%. At 90% r.h., A. siro populations reached nearly 14,000 per test-tube before slowly dropping to 5000. The mites ate the germ before the endosperm, leaving an impenetrable layer of crushed endosperm cells between these regions. The G. destructor population reached only 800 before declining to 300; these mites ate over 75% of the germ and small amounts of endosperm. Tyrophagus longior populations rose to 2200 mites before crashing at week 12 to the initial population level; these mites ate over 75% of the germ and small amounts of endosperm. At 75% r.h., both A. siro and T. longior populations were lower than at the higher r.h., peaking at 3000 and 1000 respectively and decreasing to 500 and 600 mites respectively. Glycyphagus destructor did markedly better than at 90% r.h., reaching 1500 before falling to 400. The damage at this humidity was slower to occur but was similar to that at 90% r.h. at the end of 20 weeks. At both humidities visible fungus was always less abundant on infested grain that uninfested grain.