Weights and measures in pre-Columbian America.
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History of Pharmacy↗
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The utility of cross-sectional measurements of weight and length for age in screening for growth failure (chronic malnutrition) and clinically severe protein-energy malnutrition.
The accuracy of identifying children with growth failure and/or clinically severe protein-energy malnutrition (PEM) from a single measure of length or weight for age from birth to 36 months was determined. Growth data were treated cross-sectionally and compared with National Center for Health Statistics growth standards in order to determine the sensitivity, specificity and positive predictive value of a single cross-sectional measure of weight-for-age or length-for-age in identifying children diagnosed via longitudinal records. Under 6 months of age, neither weight nor length for age was an adequate predictor of growth failure or clinical malnutrition; from 12 to 36 months, screening measures based on anthropometry were much improved. It was concluded that a single measure of weight or length for age taken close to the first birthday could identify up to 78% of the future second and third year cases of clinically severe PEM. Implications and limitations are discussed.
Body Height↗
Lifecourse weight patterns and adult-onset diabetes: the Glasgow Alumni and British Women's Heart and Health studies.
OBJECTIVE: To examine the association between body weight measures across the lifecourse and the risk of adult-onset diabetes. METHODS: We analysed data from the Glasgow Alumni Cohort and the British Women's Heart and Health Study (BWHHS). The former included 5,571 men and women who had height and weight measured at university, and reported birthweight, mid- and later-life weight in a postal questionnaire. The BWHHS analysis included 4,280 women who had height and weight measured in later adulthood and recalled their birthweight and early adult height and weight. Adult-onset diabetes was defined as doctor-diagnosed disease after age 30, either self-reported or abstracted from medical records. RESULTS: Thirty nine women and 209 men (Glasgow Alumni study) and 314 women (BWHHS) had diabetes. Those with diabetes had lower mean birthweight than those without, although the differences were small. Individuals with diabetes were also shorter and heavier at all ages than those without diabetes. Being overweight during at least one time period in adult life was associated with an increased risk of diabetes, compared to those who were never overweight. While there was no age at which being overweight was particularly detrimental, the risk associated with being overweight was cumulative across the lifecourse. CONCLUSIONS: Being overweight at any point during life is associated with an increased risk of adult-onset diabetes. The cumulative nature of this association reinforces the need to prevent the development of excess weight at an early age to reduce diabetes prevalence in coming decades.
Adolescent↗
Early adiposity rebound and the risk of adult obesity.
OBJECTIVE: At 5 to 6 years of age, body fatness normally declines to a minimum, a point called adiposity rebound (AR), before increasing again into adulthood. We determined whether a younger age at AR was associated with an increased risk of adult obesity and whether this risk was independent of fatness at AR and parent obesity. DESIGN: A retrospective cohort study using lifelong height and weight measurements recorded in outpatient medical records. SETTING: Group Health Cooperative of Puget Sound (GHC), a health maintenance organization based in Seattle, Washington. PARTICIPANTS: All 390 GHC members (and their parents) born at GHC between January 1, 1965, and January 1, 1971, who had at least one recorded adult height and weight measurement plus two visits with recorded height and weight measurements in each of three age intervals: 1.5 to 4, 4 to 8, and 8 to 16 years. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: We calculated the mean body mass index (BMI) of each subject during young adulthood (age 21 to 29 years) and the BMI of the parents when each subject was 1.5 years of age. Adult obesity was defined as a BMI >/=27.8 for males and >/=27. 3 for females. Curves were fit to each subject's BMI values between ages 1.5 and 16 years, and the age and BMI at AR were calculated from these curves. Subjects were divided into tertiles of age at AR (early, middle, and late), BMI at AR, and parent BMI (heavy, medium, and lean). RESULTS: The mean age at AR was 5.5 years, and 15% of the cohort was obese in young adulthood. Adult obesity rates were higher in those with early versus late AR (25% vs 5%), those who were heavy versus lean at AR (24% vs 4%), those with heavy versus lean mothers (25% vs 5%), and those with heavy versus lean fathers (21% vs 5%). After adjusting for parent BMI and BMI at AR, the odds ratio for adult obesity associated with early versus late AR was 6.0 (95% CI, 1.3-26.6). CONCLUSION: An early AR is associated with an increased risk of adult obesity independent of parent obesity and the BMI at AR. Future research should examine the biological and behavioral determinants of AR.
Adipose Tissue↗
Body mass index in fetal alcohol syndrome.
INTRODUCTION: Prenatal alcohol exposure is an important cause of growth impairment. In this study we examined the stability of the growth measurements, including height, weight, and body mass index (BMI) percentiles, from birth to age at the time of diagnosis for subjects who were referred for evaluation to determine if they had fetal alcohol syndrome. METHODS: We utilized subjects from the North Dakota Fetal Alcohol Syndrome Registry. Each person referred for assessment was provided a standardized assessment completed by a medical geneticist. We also examined differences in the diagnostic schema from the Institute of Medicine. The population consisted of 315 subjects with paired weight measurements, 234 subjects with paired height measurements, and 322 subjects with current BMI measurements. RESULTS: Increases in weight percentiles and decreases in height percentiles were found. Children with FAS had consistently lower growth measurements. There was significant movement in and out of lower 5th and 10th percentiles by partial and no FAS children from birth to diagnosis. DISCUSSION: The requirement for growth impairment needs to be broad rather than narrow, if most subjects with a diagnosis of FAS and partial FAS/ARND are to be captured.
Age Factors↗
The assessment of weight loss from a single measurement of body weight: the problems and limitations.
Estimation of weight loss plays a key role in the nutritional assessment of patients. The loss is usually calculated by subtracting the patient's observed weight (O) either from his recalled weight (R) or from his predicted weight (P) taken from standard tables or equations. We have compared these two assessments of weight loss (R-O, P-O) in a cross-sectional study of patients in the surgical wards of a teaching hospital. There are large differences (up to 15 kg) between average predicted weights taken from the various published tables. We have obtained predicted weights using equations derived from a healthy local population. We have devised a general technique with which the measured, R and P weights in a group can be used to give random errors of R, P, and true weight loss. In our patients there were 3.6, 10.7, and 6.0 kg respectively. As the random error of R was smaller than that of P in our patients, R-O gave better estimates of the mean and SD of the weight losses of the group of patients than did P-O, and R-O was a more precise estimate of the true weight loss of an individual. Nevertheless, R-O is only an estimate of the true weight loss and had a large random error (up to 7.2 kg). This error which can be calculated for any group of patients, must be borne in mind when using R-O to estimate the weight loss in an individual, and when selecting patients with a given weight loss. In 100 patients such as ours, 24 would have R-O greater than 10 kg, but only 18 of these would have lost 10 kg, and nine other patients who had lost 10 kg would be missed.
Body Weight↗
Validity of triceps skinfold and relative weight as measures of adolescent obesity.
The ability of relative body weight and triceps skinfold thickness to indicate obesity in adolescents was analyzed in 169 males and 66 females, 12-17 years of age, whose percent body fat had been determined by underwater weighing. Using 25% body fat in males and 30% in females as the criterion for obesity, 31 males and 17 females were placed in this category. Of these, the triceps skinfold correctly identified 15 males and 4 females, and the relative weight identified 16 and 5, respectively. These anthropometric indicators, at the levels applied, are low in sensitivity (23-50%) but high in specificity (85-100%).
Adolescent↗
Effects of body measurements and weight on calf size and calving difficulty of Holsteins.
Body measurements (heart and paunch girths, wither height, chest depth, pelvic length and width, and body length), body weight, and calving evaluation data (calf birth weight, calf sex, calf presentation, and calving assistance needed) were collected from 1974 parities of 762 Holstein cows between 1968 and 1986. Degree of calving assistance was scored continuously from 1 (no assistance) to 10 (hard mechanical assistance). Phenotypic correlations of dam body traits with calf birth weight were all significantly positive when combined for all parities and ranged from .23 for paunch girth to .27 for body weight and heart girth. Correlations of dam body traits with calving assistance scores were all significantly negative across parities and ranged from -.24 to -.30. Correlations of calf birth weight with calving assistance were higher for first parity (.37) than for all parities (.20). Least squares analysis showed that cows with shorter wither height and shorter pelvises tended to require more calving assistance. Heavier calves, winter calvings, and earlier parity all were related to increased dystocia. Male calves were heavier than female calves and also were associated with greater calving difficulty.
Animals↗
Weight loss prior to clinical AIDS as a predictor of survival. Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study Investigators.
In this analysis the aim was to determine the independent effect of moderate to severe weight loss prior to an AIDS diagnosis on survival after AIDS. The study was conducted as part of the Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study (MACS), a longitudinal study of HIV-1-seropositive gay or bisexual men. Measured weight and self-reported weight loss data were collected semiannually from 1984 through 1993. The study population included 962 HIV-1-seropositive men who developed clinical AIDS during the follow-up period. Median survival after AIDS was significantly lower for men with measured weight loss of > or = 4.5 kg 3-9 months and 3-15 months prior to AIDS, or who had lost > 10% of their baseline body weight compared with men with less weight loss or weight gain. Men with self-reported unintentional weight loss of > or = 4.5 kg 3-9 months prior to AIDS had significantly poorer survival (median = 1.05 years vs. 1.48 years; p = 0.0001) compared with men not reporting weight loss. After adjusting for potential confounding factors, men in the high measured weight loss group 3-9 months prior to AIDS still had significantly poorer survival [relative hazard (RH) = 1.36; p = 0.02]. Similar trends were seen for the two longer intervals prior to AIDS (RH = 1.38, p = 0.01; and RH = 1.50, p = 0.02, respectively). Men who self-reported weight loss > or = 4.5 kg 3-9 months prior to AIDS also had significantly poorer survival after AIDS (RH = 1.43; p = 0.002) in multivariate analysis.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)
Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome↗
[Specific weight loss in hyper- and hypothyroidism (author's transl)].
By means of a new method of extremely precise weight measurement (buoyancy scale) it is possible to measure the continuous weight loss of the human body. This weight loss is made up of three components, viz. the weight difference between produced CO2 and consumed O2, water loss through the lungs and transpiration through the skin. In relation to body weight it is called "specific weight loss." This parameter was measured in healthy human subjects and found to be within a relatively narrow range (16.42 plus or minus 2.55 mg/min/kp body weight). In four patients with hypothyroidism the values were very low (5.5 to 8.5 mg/min/kp). An increased specific weight loss was found in patients with hyperthyroidism (38 to 102 mg/min/kp in clinically severe cases). The applicability of this method to examination of thyroid function is discussed. It is compared to the classical method of basal metabolic rate measurement and its advantages are enumerated.
Body Weight↗
A method of predicting adult height and obesity in long-term survivors of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia.
PURPOSE: Short stature and obesity have been reported among long-term survivors of childhood acute lymphocytic leukemia (ALL). We examined factors that contribute to these adverse sequelae. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Serial height and weight measurements were analyzed for 91 long-term survivors who were treated for ALL between 1967 and 1975 at a single institution. These patients were all younger than 12 years at diagnosis, were in continuous complete remission, had reached final height, and had height and weight measurements within 1 year of age 18 years. They had received craniospinal (n = 33) or cranial irradiation (n = 58) to total doses of 24 Gy as CNS prophylaxis. Standard deviation scores (SDS) were used to reflect the deviation of height and weight measurements from population means, and the body mass index (BMI; weight divided by height squared) was used in assessing obesity at age 18 years. RESULTS: Short stature (less than fifth percentile) was seen in 41 patients (45%), and obesity (BMI greater than or equal to 24 kg/m2) in 35 (38%). Regression formulae were developed that explain 65% and 62% of the variability in patient height and BMI, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Risk factors were identified for abnormally short stature, which was defined to be a decrease of 1.5 SDS in height from diagnosis to age 18 years. These factors include younger age and above-average height for age at diagnosis (height SDS greater than 0), craniospinal irradiation, and greater decrease in height SDS during antileukemic therapy. Risk factors for obesity at age 18 years include weight SDS greater than 0 and greater than height SDS at 1 year after the end of chemotherapy.
Adolescent↗
[THE PRESENT BODY WEIGHTS AND MEASURES IN CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENTS].
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Adolescent↗
Changes in fat-free mass during weight loss measured by bioelectrical impedance and by densitometry.
A group of 13 apparently healthy, premenopausal obese women (134-196% ideal weight) volunteered in a weight reduction study for 8 wk on a 4200 kJ (1000 kcal) diet. Before and after the weight reduction period body composition was measured by densitometry and by the bioelectrical impedance method. Changes in fat mass and fat-free mass were calculated. Mean weight loss was 10.0 +/- 2.8 kg and loss of fat-free mass was measured to be 2.3 +/- 1.7 kg (23%) by densitometry and 0.6 +/- 1.9 kg (6%) by impedance measurements. The underestimation of the change in fat-free mass measured by the impedance method could be due to losses of water bound to glycogen after the weight-reduction period. For this reason the impedance method may be not applicable in studies in which changes in glycogen stores can be expected.
Adult↗
Endogenous analgesia in the pregnant rat: an artifact of weight-dependent measures?
It has been reported that pregnancy produces an opioid-mediated, endogenous analgesia in the rat. In an attempt to confirm this finding, we used 5 different analgesic measures to compare the responsiveness of pregnant and non-pregnant female rats to painful stimuli. Pregnant and non-pregnant rats differed only when assessed by measures that were highly correlated with body weight. Furthermore, the reduced pain responsiveness of pregnant rats was not prevented by administration of the opioid antagonists, naloxone or naltrexone. We can find no evidence for an endogenous analgesia of pregnancy; instead, our results suggest that findings of a diminished response to painful stimuli in pregnant rats may be an artifact related to the greater body mass/weight of the pregnant animals.
Animals↗
[New weights and measures in the SI system].
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International Cooperation↗
Comparison of self-reported and measured height and weight in eighth-grade students.
The goal of this study was to evaluate the relationships between self-reported and measured height, weight, and body mass index (BMI) in a sample of eighth-grade students. The study population consisted of eighth-grade students in eastern North Carolina who completed a cross-sectional survey, self-reported their height and weight, and had their height and weight measured (N = 416). Fifty-nine percent of the sample was male; 42% African American, 46% white, and 12% other races. Mean self-reported weight (62.9 kg) was significantly lower than mean measured weight (64.4 kg). Mean self-reported BMI (22.8 kg/m2) was significantly lower than mean measured BMI (23.3 kg/m2). Race and BMI category were significantly associated with reporting errors. Specifically, African American and white students were significantly less likely to under-report their height compared to other race students. African American students were more likely to underestimate their weight compared to other race students. BMI was more likely to be underestimated in African American and white students compared to other race students. Students who were at risk for overweight and those that were overweight were more likely to underestimate their weight and BMI than students who were normal weight. Approximately 17% of students were misclassified in BMI categories when self-reported data were used. The results indicate that eighth-grade students significantly underestimate their weight, but on average provide valid estimates of their height. Race and measured BMI category influence this discrepancy. School-based research that addresses the prevalence of obesity in adolescents should utilize measured height and weight when feasible.
Adolescent↗
Heterogeneity of myocardial edema in isolated pig hearts after perfusion with different types of cardioprotective solutions.
The extent and distribution of myocardial edema induced by perfusion with cardioprotective solutions is of great interest. Domestic pig hearts (n = 12) were perfused in situ after aortic cross clamping either with Bretschneider's cardioplegic solution (HTK, 4 degrees C, n = 3), with a heparinized Krebs-Henseleit solution containing 30 mmol/L 2,3 Butanedionemonoxime (BDM, 4 degrees C, n = 3) or with heparinized pig blood (HPB, 24 degrees C, n = 3). After a three-hours storage period, magnetic resonance tomography (MRI) was carried out. The acquired T1-weighted data were used for the subsequent three-dimensional reconstruction based on the "Heidelberg ray-tracing technique". The small myocardial tissue blocks (n = 216) were excised from these hearts for dry weight measurements for 9 preselected regions in duplicate including ventricular papillary muscle, ventricular free wall, ventricular septum, apex, and atrial tissue. In control hearts (n = 3), dry weight was measured immediately after explantation (no MRI). The results of dry-weight measurements and three dimensional visualization were compared. Dry-weight measurements revealed that considerable myocardial edema is induced by any of the experimental procedures. The effects were most pronounced after BDM perfusion. Regardless how the edema was induced, there were significant differences of the water content within the heart: the water content in the heads of the papillary muscles and in the interventricular septum was always smaller than that of the free left- and right-ventricular walls. The heterogeneity of myocardial edema and its spatial distribution pattern could be qualitatively visualized. The experimental data (biophysical data and 3D visualization) clearly show a heterogeneity of myocardial edema induced by different types of cardioprotective solutions. As the presence of myocardial edema represents one of the crucial events in the pathophysiology of myocardial dysfunction occurring during myocardial infarction, ischemia, heart transplantation, and extracorporeal circulation, the present study represents an interesting contribution towards intravital detection and distribution of myocardial edema.
Animals↗
The validity of self-reports of past body weights by U.S. adults.
Past weight or patterns of weight change may be more important to chronic disease risk than current weight. Self-reports, however, are often the only source of information about past body weight. To date, very few studies have examined factors affecting the validity of self-reported past body weight. We examined the validity of self-reported past body weights of 1,931 U.S. adults who were participants in the First National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (1971-1975) and were interviewed again in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey I Epidemiologic Follow-up Study (1982-1984). We compared the body weight measured during the initial examination (1971-1975) with the recalled 1971-1975 body weight reported during the follow-up interview (1982-1984). Recalled past weight was strongly correlated with previously measured weight (r = 0.73 for men, and r = 0.74 for women). Men overestimated their past body weight, whereas women underestimated their past weight. Although 39% of men and 41% of women estimated their past weight within 5 pounds, approximately 17% of women and 10% of men underestimated their past weight more than 15 pounds. Accuracy of reporting was influenced by sex, race, current body mass index, and the amount of weight gained over the 10 years following the initial examination. These factors should be considered when using recalled weight in epidemiologic studies.
Adult↗