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PubMed1995

Dietary intake and anthropometric status of 7 to 9 year old children in economically disadvantaged communities in Ontario.

OBJECTIVE: There is limited information on the nutritional health of Canadian children, particularly those living in poverty. Our purpose was to assess the dietary and anthropometric status of economically disadvantaged children as part of the longitudinal, multidisciplinary prevention project, Better Beginnings, Better Futures. METHODS: We obtained 24-hour dietary recalls and measurements of height, weight, triceps skinfolds and mid-arm circumference from children (n = 178) aged 7 to 9 years in three urban communities. Information on demographic characteristics was obtained through a parent interview. RESULTS: Linear growth appeared adequate with both boys (chi 2 = 44.1, p < .001) and girls (chi 2 = 10.8, p < .01) taller compared to NCHS reference data. The proportion of children > 90th percentile for weight-for-height (23.2%) and upper arm fat area (14.3%), suggests a tendency to excess fat; 21.1% were < 10th for percentile upper arm muscle area. Median nutrient intakes, except for calcium and vitamin A, exceeded the Canadian Recommended Nutrient Intake (RNI); however, median energy intake was well below the RNI. Energy and macronutrient intakes were similar across Z score categories of weight-for-height, upper arm muscle area, and upper arm fat area. CONCLUSIONS: The tendency to inadequate muscle mass and excess fat in the presence of low energy intake may reflect low levels of physical activity.

Anthropometry↗

PubMed2006

Diet, nutritional status and food related traditions of Oraon tribes of New Mal (West Bengal), India.

INTRODUCTION: According to the 2001 census conducted by the Government of India, India has more than 84 million tribals who constitute 8.2% of India's population. The Oraons are an agricultural tribe found mainly in Orissa, Bihar, Jharkhand and West Bengal. The present study was undertaken on a group of Oraon tribals working in a tea gardens of New Mal in Jalpaiguri district of West Bengal. The children attended the local primary school. The Oraons are covered by the Integrated Child Development Scheme (ICDS) of the Government of India, which is concerned with the health, nutrition and development of children and their mothers. To evaluate the effect of ICDS, the practices of adults towards hygiene, medication, addictive substances and diet were also recorded. METHODS: 500 Oraon tribals, including 200 men and 150 women aged 20-45 years, and 150 children aged 6-12 years, were surveyed for their dietary intake by 24-hour recall and semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaire methodology and anthropometry, and a description of food-related traditions. RESULTS: The diet of all Oraon groups was deficient in all food groups. Cereal intake was least deficient, while the intake of milk and fruit was almost negligible. Their diet was supplemented by a locally grown green leafy vegetable dheki saag, and fermented leftover rice. The energy available from the diet for all age groups was only 52-53% of the recommended dietary allowances of the Indian Council of Medical Research. Children were enrolled in a midday meal program at the local primary school; however, their energy intake was severely deficient, and of the same order as their parents. The mean basal mass index (BMI) of adult Oraons was not low, but children were severely undernourished. Men were less undernourished than were women. Some potentially useful traditions practiced included wiping washed utensils with leaves of a local plant mirchaiya, preparing herbal tablets called ranoodava to make an alcoholic and a medicinal drink called hadiya. The Oraons' knowledge of contraception, vaccinations, proper diet and supplements needed for successful pregnancy was severely deficient. CONCLUSIONS: A remarkable finding of this study on the Oraon tribals is that the BMI of children was substantially below that of adult men and women. This deficiency cannot be attributed to energy intake because energy intake of children, as percentage of recommended dietary allowance, was about the same as adults. The study shows that the midday meal program provided only approximately 25% of the energy requirements of the children; moreover, it was qualitatively deficient. It also seems that the midday meal replaced rather than supplemented home meals. Despite ICDS coverage, knowledge with regard to contraception, vaccinations, proper diet and supplements needed for successful pregnancy was very low. Interesting traditional practices concerned with methods of preparing food and use of local plants as medicines were observed and documented. Rural health professionals should ensure adequate quantity and quality of food supplementation. They should strive to disseminate health related knowledge. Traditional tribal practices should be studied for their nutritional and medicinal value. They could be responsible for the adequate BMI of adult Oraon, despite severe deficiency in energy intake.

Adult↗

PubMed2000

Adherence to a Very Low Fat Diet for Cardiac Rehabilitation Patients.

Diets encouraging 10% or less fat energy intake have been advocated to prevent progression of coronary artery disease. In this study, a randomized, controlled, repeated measures experimental design was used to determine if reducing fat intake incrementally to an eventual goal of 10% of total energy intake would result in better dietary adherence than would an immediate reduction to 10%. After completing a lifestyle education program and receiving personal dietary counselling, volunteers recruited from a cardiac rehabilitation program (treatment group, n = 4; control group, n = 3) completed a 24-hour recall at two, four, and seven months post-intervention. At these intervals, subjects also spoke with the dietitian to set dietary targets for the incremental reduction group or reinforce them for the immediate reduction group. Neither group achieved the goal of reducing fat intake to 10% of total energy intake, a finding that suggests this may be an unrealistic target. Because both groups consumed about the same percentage of fat energy, there appeared to be no benefit from incremental reduction of fat intake as a strategy to improve dietary adherence.

Journal Article↗

PubMed1996

Energy and nutrient intakes of Okinawan centenarians.

Energy and nutrient requirements of younger people have been well studied, unlike that of centenarians. The average life span of the Japanese is the longest in the world, and the population of the very aged is rapidly growing. In addition, the average life span of Okinawan people is the longest in all of Japan. Their food habits also differ from other parts of Japan. To obtain basic dietary information, we surveyed 21 centenarians in Okinawa (17 women and 4 men). The dietary survey was done by one 24 h recall method, as was done for centenarians living throughout Japan (3). The energy intake of the Okinawan centenarians living at home was about 1,100 kcal/day for both sexes, which was similar to that of centenarians throughout Japan. Energy, some nutrient intakes and food consumption pattern (in terms of food groups) were different from those of the centenarians throughout Japan. We also measured their heights, weights, hematological values and activities of daily living (ADL). Comparison between the nutrient intakes and the recommended dietary allowances (RDAs) estimated for the centenarians showed that the estimated RDA of energy for the Okinawan centenarians might be less than their actual intakes.

Activities of Daily Living↗

PubMed1992

Effects of olestra, a noncaloric fat substitute, on daily energy and fat intakes in lean men.

Nutrient and energy intakes, hunger, and fullness were examined after the replacement of 36, 20, or 0 g fat in breakfast with olestra, a noncaloric fat substitute. Twenty-four lean, nondieting men (aged 21-30 y) participated in a placebo-controlled, three-condition crossover design. Self-selected, ad libitum intakes at lunch and dinner were monitored in the laboratory. Evening snacks and breakfast the next day were assessed through food diaries. Visual-analog-scale ratings including hunger and fullness were collected throughout the test days. Single-meal olestra substitution produced a significant dose-related reduction in the amount and percentage of energy from fat consumed daily with a reciprocal increase in carbohydrate intake. Daily energy intakes were not significantly different nor did ratings of hunger and fullness vary systematically between conditions. Consumption of olestra can reduce fat intake and increase carbohydrate intake without affecting total daily energy intake or usual patterns of hunger and fullness.

Adult↗

PubMed1993

Preweaning intake and postweaning dietary energy effects on intake and metabolism of calves weaned at 26 days of age.

Holstein calves (n = 48) were used to evaluate whether preweaning feeding management affects postweaning DMI and metabolism after abrupt weaning at 26 d of age. Calves were fed only whole milk until d 19 of age. From d 19 to 26, calves were provided one of three isocaloric and isonitrogenous diets: milk at 15% of d-1 BW, milk at 12% of d-1 BW plus a grain-based supplement added to the pail, or milk at 12% of d-1 BW and drenched (force-fed) with the supplement. After weaning, calves were offered a low or high energy (1.7 or 5.8% ether extract) starter. From d 26 to 36, starter intake was similar between calves fed the supplement in the pail and those fed only milk but lower than for calves drenched with supplement. Plasma NEFA increased threefold from d 26 to 27, and calves fed only milk had higher NEFA than drenched calves. From d 26 to 42, plasma VFA of drenched calves were higher than those fed only milk. Except for an increase in plasma NEFA at d 36 and 42, high energy starter did not affect any variable. Preweaning drenching of calves stimulated postweaning adaptation to dry diets. Intake postweaning appears to depend more on physiological adaptation to dry diets than a preweaning feeding management.

Animal Feed↗

PubMed1980

Simple methods for nutritional assessment in hemodialyzed patients.

Uremic patients undergoing hemodialysis are often catabolic and malnourished. To treat malnutrition effectively, a preliminary nutritional assessment is needed. Available techniques should enable the clinician to readily detect the presence of malnutrition and to follow the response to nutritional therapy. In a group of chronic uremic patients undergoing maintenance hemodialysis, the authors evaluated the nutritional status with the following indices: 1) assessment of the somatic fat and protein compartments by means of anthropometric measurements (weight/height ratio, triceps and subscapular skinfold thickness, and arm muscle circumference); 2) assessment of the visceral protein compartment (serum total protein, albumin, transferrin, pseudocholinesterase, C3, and immunoglobulin content); 3) assessment of cell-mediated immunity by means of skin tests ("skin window," PPD and phytohemagglutinin) and blood lymphocyte content; and 4) assessment of the dietary intake of nutrients with dietary diaries. Anthropometric indices, serum protein content (except immunoglobulins), and the immune response was generally lower than in normal subjects, suggesting a mixed marasmus-like and kwashiorkor-like pattern of protein-calorie malnutrition. The protein intake was normal, whereas the energy intake tended to be low. Protein intake was significantly correlated with the predialysis serum urea nitrogen. Due to the difficulties in improving oral energy intake and the negative nitrogen balance reported during the days of dialysis therapy, patients were given intravenous supplements of essential or essential and nonessential amino acids for 2 months. The effects of this short-term supplementation were limited.

Adult↗

PubMed1992

Dietary fat and fiber in relation to risk of breast cancer. An 8-year follow-up.

OBJECTIVE: To address the hypotheses that dietary fat increases and fiber decreases the risk of breast cancer. DESIGN: Prospective cohort study with dietary assessment at baseline, using a validated, self-administered food frequency questionnaire. SETTING/PARTICIPANTS: 89,494 women in the Nurses' Health Study who were 34 through 59 years of age in 1980 and who were followed up for 8 years (> 95% complete). RESULTS: 1439 incident cases of breast cancer were diagnosed, including 774 among postmenopausal women. After adjustment for age, established risk factors, and total energy intake, we observed no evidence of any positive association between total fat intake and breast cancer incidence (relative risks [RRs] for increasing quintiles of fat intake were 1.0, 0.85, 0.96, 0.91, and 0.90; 95% confidence interval for highest vs lowest quintile, 0.77 to 1.07). Among postmenopausal women alone, corresponding RRs were 1.0, 0.89, 1.00, 0.95, and 0.91. Comparing extreme deciles of total fat intake (> or = 49% vs < 29% of total energy intake), the RR was 0.86 (95% confidence interval, 0.67 to 1.08). A similar absence of any positive association was observed without adjustment for energy intake; for tumors less than 2 cm as well as 2 cm or greater in diameter; for saturated, monounsaturated, and polyunsaturated fat; and after excluding the first 4 years of follow-up. Also, we found no suggestion of any positive association when using a more detailed and precise dietary questionnaire completed in 1984 (666 subsequent cases), even when women consuming less than 25% of energy from fat were used as the comparison group. No suggestion of a protective effect of dietary fiber was observed (RRs for increasing quintiles were 1.0, 0.95, 0.93, 1.02, and 1.02). CONCLUSIONS: These data provide evidence against both an adverse influence of fat intake and a protective effect of fiber consumption by middle-aged women on breast cancer incidence over 8 years. Nevertheless, the positive association between intake of animal fat and risk of colon cancer observed in many studies provides ample reason to limit this source of energy.

Adult↗

PubMed1993

Genetic and statistical properties of residual feed intake.

Residual feed intake is defined as the difference between actual feed intake and that predicted on the basis of requirements for production and maintenance of body weight. Formulas were developed to obtain genetic parameters of residual feed intake from knowledge of the genetic and phenotypic parameters of the component traits. Genetic parameters of residual feed intake were determined for a range of heritabilities (h2 = .1, .3, or .5) for component traits of feed intake and production, and genetic (rg = .1, .5, or .9) and environmental (re = .1, .5, or .9) correlations between them. Resulting heritability of residual feed intake ranged from .03 to .84 and the genetic correlation between residual feed intake and production ranged from -.90 to .87. Heritability of residual feed intake depends considerably on the environmental correlation between feed intake and production. Residual feed intake based on phenotypic regression of feed intake on production usually contains a genetic component due to production. Residual feed intake based on genotypic regression of feed intake on production is genetically independent of production and its use is equivalent to use of a selection index restricted to hold production constant. Multiple-trait selection on residual feed intake, based on either phenotypic or genetic regressions, and production is equivalent to multiple-trait selection on feed intake and production. Residual energy intake in dairy cattle was examined as an example. Heritability of residual energy intake based on genotypic regression was close to zero and indicated that measurement of feed intake provides little additional genetic information over and above that provided by milk production and body weight. The principles outlined in this study have broader application than just to residual feed intake and apply to any trait that is defined as a linear function of other traits.

Animals↗

PubMed2000

Medicinal strategies in the treatment of obesity.

When prevention fails, medicinal treatment of obesity may become a necessity. Any strategic medicinal development must recognize that obesity is a chronic, stigmatized and costly disease that is increasing in prevalence. Because obesity can rarely be cured, treatment strategies are effective only as long as they are used, and combined therapy may be more effective than monotherapy. For a drug to have significant impact on body weight it must ultimately reduce energy intake, increase energy expenditure, or both. Currently approved drugs for long-term treatment of obesity include sibutramine, which inhibits food intake, and orlistat, which blocks fat digestion.

Adipose Tissue↗

PubMed2006

Nutrient adequacy in Spanish children and adolescents.

The nutritional intakes of the Spanish child and adolescent population are presented, as well as the population at risk of inadequate nutrient status. A random sample of 3534 people aged 2-24 years were interviewed between 1998 and 2000. Interviews included two 24 h recalls and a general questionnaire and anthropometric evaluations for the entire sample. After excluding under-reporters (18.7 %), the final sample was 2855 individuals (1348 males and 1507 females). The average intake of energy was 9543 kJ in males and 7804 kJ in females, with important variations seen by age group. Energy intake increased with age in both sexes until 14-17 years, which also applied to almost all of the nutrients studied, with the exception of vitamin C. A decreasing trend in the percentage of energy from carbohydrates was seen in both sexes. At the low socioeconomic level, it was observed that all nutrient intakes were less favourable when compared with higher socioeconomic levels. Nutrients with associated intakes below one-third of the Spanish recommended nutrient intake (RNI) included vitamin D (42 % of the sample) and folate (10 % of females), and the percentages falling below two-thirds of the RNI corresponded to: vitamin D (97 %), vitamin A (60 %), vitamin E (54 %), folate (58 % of females), Fe (23 % of females), vitamin C (8 %), Mg (4.5 %), Ca (5 % of females) and vitamin B6 (5 % of females). Adolescents aged between 14 and 17 years was the group with the highest nutritional risk, especially among girls. Nutritional adequacy in Spanish children was, in general, adequate, although it is necessary to analyse the implications of high inadequate intakes of vitamins D, E and A, which means that the current recommended intakes should be reconsidered. It should be noted that folate levels should be doubled in the near future.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1998

Food and nutritional data for a population from northern France: the Fleurbaix Laventie Ville Santé (FLVS) Study.

BACKGROUND: This paper describes nutritional characteristics and eating habits of the participants of the Fleurbaix Laventie Ville Santé study. METHODS: One-day dietary records for children (under 14 years of age) and three-day records for adolescents and adults provided nutritional data for 2,364 people between the ages of 2 and 70. RESULTS: Daily energy intake increased up to the age of 18 (9038 +/- 2620 kJ in women and 11,659 +/- 2146 kJ in men) and decreased thereafter. In parallel, the contribution of fat and protein to energy intake increased with age (respectively 42% and 18% in people older than 40) whereas the contribution of carbohydrates decreased (40% in people older than 40). The daily distribution of energy intake indicated increased contributions of lunch and dinner with age, and decreased contributions of breakfast and of afternoon snacks. Consumption of potatoes and processed meat far exceeded that of fruit, bread and fish. In comparison to recommended intakes and to other French nutritional studies, total energy intake in our study was similar, whatever the sex and age range. In contrast, the contribution of fat and protein to energy intake was always higher while that of carbohydrates was lower. This was especially true for the adults. CONCLUSIONS: These differences cannot be entirely explained by the differences in methodologies used and are undoubtedly due to the regional eating habits in the area studied.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1980

Influence of dietary energy on the nitrogen sparing action of methionine and arginine in chicks fed a protein-free diet.

Chicks were fed a protein-free (PF) diet or a protein-free diet with added methionine and arginine (MA) for 10 days to investigate the effect of dietary energy on the nitrogen sparing action of methionine and arginine. In experiment 1, equal amounts of a PF or MA diet were given and body weight change, N excretion, N balance and uric acid N excretion were measured to serve as criteria in determining the nitrogen sparing action. In experiment 2, a PF or MA diet was given ad libitum with the metabolizable energy content varied. In experiment 3, the energy intake of chicks was restricted for 10 days in both the PF and MA groups and carcass analysis was done. Even when equal amounts of feed providing the same amount of energy were given, the nitrogen sparing action was still observed. The nitrogen sparing action was always observed in diets with different metabolizable energy contents because the birds adjusted their energy intake voluntarily. When the energy intake was restricted by about 50%, the nitrogen sparing action was no longer apparent. The nature of the nitrogen sparing action is discussed in terms of body reserve protein stores.

Animals↗

PubMed1998

Energy, macronutrient, and food intakes in relation to energy compensation in consumers who drink different types of milk.

To examine whether total fat intake is actually lower in reduced-fat (low-fat and skim) milk drinkers and whether reduced-fat-milk drinkers compensate for energy intake we compared the intakes of foods, energy, and energy-yielding nutrients in reduced-fat-milk drinkers and whole milk drinkers by using the US Department of Agriculture's 1989-1991 nationwide food intake database, the Continuing Survey of Food Intakes by Individuals. This database represents a national stratified sample population of 15 128 individuals. Of the survey population, approximately one-third consumed whole milk, one-third consumed low-fat milk, one-tenth consumed skim milk, and one-tenth consumed mixed types of milk. The data provided the following information: 1) total fat intake of reduced-fat-milk drinkers is significantly (P < or = 0.05) lower than that of whole milk drinkers; 2) in general, males but not females compensate for energy by increasing their carbohydrate intake; 3) reduced-fat-milk drinkers consume more fruit and vegetables (P < or = 0.05) and less red meat and sweets (P < or = 0.05) than whole milk drinkers; 4) through their reduction in total fat intake, several age groups of skim milk drinkers have achieved the US dietary goal for fat intake, ie, < or = 30% of energy intake from fat; 5) teenagers compensate for energy intake the least of all age groups; and 6) with advancing age, fewer people drink milk and fewer drink whole milk. The data indicate significant sex differences in energy compensation, that reduced-fat-milk drinkers consume significantly (P < or = 0.05) less fat than whole milk drinkers, and that the US dietary goal for fat intake may be practically achieved by consuming reduced-fat foods such as skim milk and limiting intakes of high-fat foods such as red meat.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1999

Fluoxetine-maintained obese humans: effect on food intake and body weight.

The effects of fluoxetine on food intake, body weight, and mood of obese individuals was examined in a 16-week inpatient/outpatient study. Six male and eight female obese volunteers began the study (four male and five females completed all phases of the study). They lived in a residential laboratory during three one-week inpatient periods separated by a 5-week and an 8-week outpatient period. Following an initial 4-day placebo baseline, participants were maintained on fluoxetine (60 mg/day) for the remainder of the study. Food intake parameters (total daily energy intake, macronutrient intake, mean number of eating bouts, interbout interval), body weight, subjective effects, and task performance were measured several times during the day during inpatient periods; food intake questionnaires were completed daily during the outpatient periods. Fluoxetine significantly reduced daily energy intake derived from fat, carbohydrate, and protein by decreasing the mean number of eating bouts per day throughout the study. No other food intake parameter was affected. Body weight was significantly reduced after 7 weeks, but not after 16 weeks of daily fluoxetine administration. These results indicate that fluoxetine reduced food intake for at least 16 weeks in nondepressed obese individuals without specifically affecting carbohydrate intake. Weight that was lost during the first few weeks of daily fluoxetine administration was subsequently regained even though food intake remained reduced. Therefore, fluoxetine maintenance does not appear promising as a sole long-term therapy for obesity.

Adult↗

PubMed1999

Intake of fatty acids in western Europe with emphasis on trans fatty acids: the TRANSFAIR Study.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the intake of trans fatty acids (TFA) and other fatty acids in 14 Western European countries. DESIGN AND SUBJECTS: A maximum of 100 foods per country were sampled and centrally analysed. Each country calculated the intake of individual trans and other fatty acids, clusters of fatty acids and total fat in adults and/or the total population using the best available national food consumption data set. RESULTS: A wide variation was observed in the intake of total fat and (clusters) of fatty acids in absolute amounts. The variation in proportion of energy derived from total fat and from clusters of fatty acids was less. Only in Finland, Italy, Norway and Portugal total fat did provide on average less than 35% of energy intake. Saturated fatty acids (SFA) provided on average between 10% and 19% of total energy intake, with the lowest contribution in most Mediterranean countries. TFA intake ranged from 0.5% (Greece, Italy) to 2.1% (Iceland) of energy intake among men and from 0.8% (Greece) to 1.9% among women (Iceland) (1.2-6.7 g/d and 1.7-4.1 g/d, respectively). The TFA intake was lowest in Mediterranean countries (0.5-0.8 en%) but was also below 1% of energy in Finland and Germany. Moderate intakes were seen in Belgium, The Netherlands, Norway and UK and highest intake in Iceland. Trans isomers of C18:1 were the most TFA in the diet. Monounsaturated fatty acids contributed 9-12% of mean daily energy intake (except for Greece, nearly 18%) and polyunsaturated fatty acids 3-7%. CONCLUSION: The current intake of TFA in most Western European countries does not appear to be a reason for major concern. In several countries a considerable proportion of energy was derived from SFA. It would therefore be prudent to reduce intake of all cholesterol-raising fatty acids, TFA included.

Adult↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Are precocial young cheaper? Lactation energetics in the guinea pig.

Caviomorphs stand out from other small rodents by producing extremely precocial young. Pups begin to nibble solid food right after birth and can survive weaning when 5 d old. We tested whether these properties of young lead to a low cost of lactation in guinea pigs (Cavia porcellus). In contrast to altricial rodents, energy acquisition and expenditure of guinea pig mothers (litter size, three) was highest during the first half of the 23-d lactation period. Daily metabolizable energy intake at peak lactation was increased by 126% above nonreproducing level and was 65% of the predicted maximal intake. Peak daily energy expenditure was 1.9 times basal metabolic rate, and resting energy expenditure was elevated 26% above nonreproductive level. From the third day, young consumed solid food and intake increased linearly over the course of lactation. During lactation, total intake of litters through solid food consumption (assuming efficient digestion) amounted to 86% of the energy intake that mothers allocated to reproduction during that period. The pattern of energy expenditure during lactation in guinea pigs differs substantially from that of altricial rodents and is made possible because pups contribute through solid food intake. Overall energy demand on the mothers is not much lower than in altricial rodents, but lower peak energy demand during lactation in guinea pigs may reduce the coupling of reproduction to periods of high food abundance.

Aging↗

PubMed1991

The nutrition of the budgerigar (Melopsittacus undulatus).

Growing interest in the nutrition of the budgerigar (Melopsittacus undulatus) has highlighted the paucity of knowledge in this area. The aims of this study were to review the available literature on their individual nutrient requirements and relate this to the nutrient content of their predominantly seed-based diet and to investigate the effect of the bird's daily energy requirement on the fluctuations in body weight. Studies were conducted at the Waltham Centre to measure the relationship between daily metabolizable energy intake (kJ/kg BW) and body weight change (g/d) for groups of adult budgerigars. The birds were found to require daily 48-128 kJ/bird depending on their body mass (birds in our colony typically weigh 30-80 g). During a series of breeding trials the daily energy intake for a breeding pair plus their three chicks, at peak energy intake, was found to be 483-505 kJ (at pairing, the mean daily energy intake of the breeding pairs was 231 kJ). Apparent metabolizability of the major nutrients from a seed diet were generally found to be greater than 80%, which allows these birds to assimilate the high levels of energy needed for their basal metabolism. In summary, the nutrient requirements of the budgerigar (where known) were found to be similar to those of other avian species, however, further work is needed, especially in the area of availability of key nutrients. Further developments in the dietary management of these birds will only be possible if researchers can overcome the birds' poor acceptance of novel foods and satisfy their high basal energy requirements before establishing their requirements for individual nutrients.

Animal Nutritional Physiological Phenomena↗

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