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PubMed2004

[Post-transfusion malaria: is the risk irreconciliable with biological silence?].

Despite the relatively high frequency of imported malaria in metropolitan France, the transmission of malaria by transfusion is exceptional. The screening of donations to determine those at risk is performed by an interview, and by the testing of serology for defined groups of donors. However, the exclusion of a candidate 'at risk' as a blood donor, by a pre-donation interview, is not completely mastered and the discrimination by biological examination lacks sensitivity, as much for methodological reasons as for reasons linked to the complex parasitic pathogenic agent (Plasmodium ssp.), as for the specific host defence system. The risk of introducing an unsafe-potentially dangerous (transfusion-transmitted malaria is often lethal)-element into the transfusional circuit is not completely covered. Is serology testing the most adequate test to avoid the risk of infected donations, in particular by Plasmodium falciparum; what are the alternatives and what will be the eventual added-costs of the biological qualification of such donations? The transfusional risk linked to Plasmodium seems, however, to be reduced to a minimum, concerning the circulation of plasma, which could represent an alternative for donors at real risk (rare) and those with a supposed risk (relatively numerous).

Animals↗

PubMed2005

[West Nile virus (WNV): generalities and implications for blood transfusion].

West Nile virus (WNV) is an arbovirus (genus Flavivirus, Family Flaviviridae, transmitted to humans by mosquito bite. In most cases (80%), human infection remains asymptomatic. Severe central nervous system complications (encephalitis and meningoencephalitis) are rare. In the Old World, the virus circulation has been demonstrated in Asia, Australia, Africa, Middle East and Europe. Several outbreaks in humans have been described. Following its introduction into North America in 1999, WN virus has been responsible of a large number of human cases in USA and Canada. For the first time, viral transmission by blood products was clearly demonstrated in USA in 2002. In France, the presence of virus has been reported in the Southeastern departments since 1962. In 2003, the occurrence of humans cases at specific geographical foci urged the French National Blood Agency (etablissement francais du sang) to take preventive measures for evaluating the virus transmission risks.

Animals↗

PubMed2005

Malaria vectors and urbanization in the equatorial forest region of south Cameroon.

Entomological surveys were carried out in the town of Mbalmayo and in the nearby rural village of Olama, within the equatorial forest zone of Cameroon. Mosquitoes were captured when landing on human volunteers and by pyrethrum spray catches. Malaria vectors captured were Anopheles gambiae Giles (M and S forms) and A. moucheti Evans in both areas, together with A. funestus Giles in Mbalmayo. One A. marshallii (Theobald) specimen infected by Plasmodium falciparum was found in Olama. Anopheles moucheti was the most abundant anopheline species caught in Olama, while A. gambiae was the most abundant in Mbalmayo. All these vectors were highly anthropophilic as indicated by the fact that only 5 of 201 blood meals analysed had been taken from non-human hosts. Plasmodium falciparum was the only malaria parasite species found in Mbalmayo, while P. malariae was also found in Olama. The annual entomological inoculation rate was estimated at 129 infective bites/person/year in Mbalmayo and 322 in Olama. Comparison with data published in 1955 from Mbalmayo, before expansion of the town, showed the impact of urbanization on the composition of the vector system and malaria transmission dynamics. Such changes should be considered when implementing sustainable control measures.

Animals↗

PubMed2005

Do bednets reduce malaria transmission by exophagic mosquitoes?

The impact of bednet coverage on malaria prevalence in a suburb of São Tomé was monitored, by passive case detection, over a three-year period (1997-1999), when bednet use increased from 20 to 74%. Malaria parasites were detected in 1651 (41.6%) of the 3967 slides taken during the study. All four human malaria parasites were seen, with Plasmodium falciparum being the predominant species (94.9% of positive slides). Prevalence of malaria among residents decreased, particularly in 1-4 year olds. In addition, there was a concomitant decrease in prevalence also among non-net users, suggesting a mass effect on transmission, even though the only vector in the area is largely exophagic and zoophilic.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2006

Evaluation of synthetic repellents on mosquito nets in experimental huts against insecticide-resistant Anopheles gambiae and Culex quinquefasciatus mosquitoes.

Owing to the development of pyrethroid resistance in Anopheles gambiae, there is a need to develop chemical alternatives for use on mosquito nets. Synthetic insect repellents are widely used for personal protection as skin or clothing applications. The efficacy of repellent-treated nets (RTN) was evaluated in experimental huts in Côte d'Ivoire against pyrethroid-resistant populations of An. gambiae and Culex quinquefasciatus. The repellents tested were DEET (N,N-diethyl-3-methylbenzamide) at 7.9 g/m2 and two formulations of ethyl butylacetylaminopropionate (IR3535) at 7.6 g/m2 and 7.3 g/m2. Over 45 nights there was a 74-82% reduction in the number of An. gambiae entering the huts containing RTNs but no significant reduction in entry of C. quinquefasciatus. There was a 63-64% reduction in the proportion of An. gambiae blood feeding but no reduction in the proportion of C. quinquefasciatus blood feeding in huts with RTNs. An unexpected result was the 69-76% mortality of An. gambiae and 51-61% mortality of C. quinquefasciatus in huts containing RTNs. Treated filter paper bioassays in WHO test kits confirmed that confined contact with DEET induces mortality. The DEET-based product provided better and longer protection; tunnel test bioassays confirmed that residual activity lasted for up to 6 weeks. Application of repellents to nets warrants further investigation and development.

Animals↗

PubMed2004

Cloning and sequencing of a cDNA expressing a ribosomal P0 peptide from Culicoides nubeculosus (Diptera).

Insect bite dermal hypersensitivity (IBH) is an allergic dermatitis of horses caused by bites of Culicoides spp. and sometimes Simulium spp. The aim of the investigation presented here was to identify allergens causing IBH. A cDNA library expressing recombinant Culicoides nubeculosus proteins was screened using affinity-purified serum from an IBH-affected horse. Screening of the library resulted in identification of one immunoreactive clone. The sequence of the cDNA insert was determined and revealed a 600 bp insert with an open reading frame coding for a 78 amino acid long protein, called rCul n 1. Analysis of the deduced amino acid sequence revealed an identity of 67-78% to the C-terminal part of the 318 amino acid long ribosomal P0 protein from other Diptera. Furthermore, the 38 C-terminal amino acids displayed an identity of 57% with the C-terminal part of the acidic ribosomal protein P2 from Aspergillus fumigatus. The cDNA insert was subcloned and expressed as a [His]6-tagged protein in Escherichia coli and purified using Ni2(+)-chelate affinity chromatography. The 10kDa recombinant Cul n 1 protein bound the affinity-purified antibody fraction used for screening the expression library. Determination of IgE and IgG levels against rCul n 1 by ELISA in sera from 19 IBH-affected and 18 Swiss control horses and in sera from eight control horses living in Iceland showed no significant differences between the three groups of horses (median IgE levels = 60, 49 and 44 relative ELISA units, respectively). rCul n 1 did not induce sulfidoleukotriene (sLT) release from peripheral blood leukocytes of IBH-affected horses (N = 5), although sLT release was induced with the Culicoides whole body extract.

Allergens↗

PubMed2003

Aedes albopictus is a natural vector of Dirofilaria immitis in Italy.

Investigations were carried out in Padova town (Veneto region, NE Italy) to define the actual role of Aedes albopictus in the natural transmission of Dirofilaria nematodes, and to assess the risk that its presence might represent for veterinary and medical health. During summer 2000-2002 daytime captures of human-attracted mosquitoes were carried out in three areas of the town. The presence of filarial parasites in mosquitoes was evaluated by PCR, and sequencing confirmed species assessment. DNA extraction was performed separately on pools of the insect abdomen and thorax-head, to discriminate between Dirofilaria infected/infective specimens. A total of 2721 mosquitoes were caught and A. albopictus was the most abundant species (2534). Filarial DNA was found in 27.5% (19/69) of the abdomen pools formed with mosquitoes collected in summer 2000, and in 11.1% (16/144) and 4.9% (6/123) thorax-head pools coming from samplings 2001 and 2002, respectively. Filarial DNA was belonging to D. immitis and all studied areas harboured infective specimens. These results prove A. albopictus as natural vector of D. immitis in Italy. Moreover, they support the hypothesis that the presence of the mosquito could affect the transmission pattern of canine heartworm disease in urban environment and, considering the aggressive anthropophylic behaviour of the species (30-48 bites/h) proven in Padova town, could enhance the circulation of filarial nematodes from animals to humans.

Aedes↗

PubMed2004

Mechanical transmission of Trypanosoma vivax in cattle by the African tabanid Atylotus fuscipes.

An experiment was carried out in Burkina Faso to evaluate the potential for mechanical transmission of Trypanosoma vivax by the African tabanid Atylotus fuscipes. The experiment was carried out in a corral (10 m x 10 m) completely covered by a mosquito net (12 m x 12 m and 2.5m high). Eight heifers (cross-bred Zebu X Baoulé), free of trypanosome infection, were kept together with two heifers experimentally infected with a local stock of T. vivax. An average of 539 A. fuscipes per day, freshly captured with two Nzi traps, were introduced into the mosquito net from Day 1 to 20, to allow mechanical transmission of the parasites among cattle. Daily parasitological examinations (BCM) of cattle blood samples indicated that six of the eight receiver heifers were positive from days 9, 10, 15, 16, 19 and 29. Mechanical transmission of T. vivax by A. fuscipes was demonstrated unequivocally in close to natural conditions, at a high rate (75% incidence over a 20-day period) under a mean challenge of 54 insects per heifer per day. These results, in addition to previous demonstration of mechanical transmission of T. vivax by Atylotus agrestis, confirm that mechanical transmission can be a significant route of infection.

Animals↗

PubMed2006

A comparative longitudinal study of bovine trypanosomiasis in tsetse-free and tsetse-infested zones of the Amhara Region, northwest Ethiopia.

A study was conducted to determine the incidence of trypanosome infections in cattle in tsetse-free and tsetse-infested zones of the Amhara Region of northwest Ethiopia. A total of six sentinel herds were established and the cattle observed during a period of 8 consecutive months. The prevalence of seropositive cattle was high in both the tsetse-free and tsetse-infested zones. The average monthly incidence of trypanosome infection, determined using molecular diagnostic tools, was 20.9% and 25.7% in the tsetse-free and the tsetse-infested zones, respectively. In the tsetse-free, Trypanosoma vivax was responsible for 90.9% of the cattle trypanosome infections. In the tsetse-infested zone, Trypanosoma congolense and T. vivax contributed almost equally to the trypanosome infections in cattle. Trypanosome infection, regardless of species, resulted in anaemia as evidenced by a significant decrease in the packed cell volume of the infected animal. The outcome of this longitudinal study suggests that control of trypanosomiasis in the Amhara Region cannot be achieved by tsetse control alone. Supplemental measures to include drug therapy and biting fly control are discussed.

Anemia↗

PubMed2006

Deltamethrin-impregnated collars for the control of canine leishmaniasis: evaluation of the protective effect and influence on the clinical outcome of Leishmania infection in kennelled stray dogs.

A 2-year field study on kennelled stray dogs living in a highly endemic area of leishmaniasis was designed to evaluate whether deltamethrin-impregnated collars (Scalibor) Protector Band) could confer protection against leishmaniasis in this peculiar setting, and to assess differences in clinical outcomes between collared and uncollared dogs. A cohort of 120 clinically healthy and Leishmania-seronegative dogs was enrolled, 50% of which were collared before the 2003 transmission season, and then re-collared before the subsequent season. Collared and uncollared animals were allowed to live with infected dogs in same groups within the kennel. Follow-up included serological (IFAT) assessment twice a year with parasitological Leishmania confirmation, and clinical evaluation performed every 3 months on seroconverted dogs from both groups. Collar losses during the two seasons were high (35%). About 50% of enrolled dogs were lost at follow-up because of death or they were moved to other locations. After the 2003 season, cross-sectional serological examinations tested positive in 5 out of 44 collared animals (11.4%) and in 14 out of 34 controls (41.2%), with 72.3% estimated protection (P<0.005). After the 2004 season, 7/31 seronegative collared dogs seroconverted (22.6%) compared with 7/17 seronegative controls (41.2%), with 45.1% protection (P=0.15). At the end of the study, the cumulative rate of protection was 50.8% (P=0.005). At the clinical evaluation of 21 seroconverted dogs from both groups, canine leishmaniasis signs were significantly more frequent (90% versus 36%, P=0.017) and rapidly progressive in uncollared than in collared dogs. Reasons for such partial clinical protection in collared dogs may be found in the vector anti-feeding effect of protector bands, resulting in a lower number of infectious bites and, probably, in the reduction of antigenic stimuli necessary to shift toward a non-protective immune response.

Animals↗

PubMed2006

Biting flies and Trypanosoma vivax infection in three highland districts bordering lake Tana, Ethiopia.

An epidemiological study was conducted to determine the prevalence of trypanosomosis in cattle, small ruminants and Equidae, and to identify biting flies; potential mechanical vectors of trypanosomes in the three districts of Bahir Dar Zuria, Dembia and Fogera, bordering lake Tana, Ethiopia. About 1509 cattle, 798 small ruminants and 749 Equidae were bled for the prevalence study using the buffy-coat method and the measurement of the hematocrit value. Sixty-six NGU and 20 monoconical traps were deployed for the fly survey. The results indicated the presence of trypanosomes in 6.1% (92/1509) of the cattle with a maximum during the late rainy season (9.6%) than the early dry season (3.6%) at Fogera district. Prevalence at the district level varied from 4% to 9.6%. Only one sheep (1/122) and one goat (1/676) were found positive for T. vivax-like trypanosomes and none of the Equidae was positive. All the trypanosomes encountered in cattle belong to the single species of T. vivax. The PCV was negatively associated with detection of T. vivax (21.6% in infected versus 25.4% in non-infected cattle). A total of 55,398 biting flies were caught of which 49,353 (89.08%) belong to Stomoxys, 4715 (8.51%) to horse flies and 1330 (2.4%) to Chrysops species. There was no tsetse fly. Species identification has indicated the presence of Atylotus agrestis, Chrysops streptobalia, Stomoxys calcitrans, S. nigra, S. pulla, S. pallida, S. sitiens, S. taeniata, S. uruma, Haematopota lasiops and Hippobosca variegata. The overall apparent density was 214.7flies/trap/day. Seasonal comparison showed higher fly catches in the late rainy season than the early dry season. This study indicated that T. vivax infections culminate in cattle at the same time as mechanical vectors such as Stomoxys sp. and Atylotus agrestis. Therefore, attention towards T. vivax infection in cattle is essential to control the impact of the disease on productivity. A further study on biting flies is recommended.

Animals↗

PubMed2006

Evaluation of the efficacy of a topically administered combination of imidacloprid and permethrin against Phlebotomus perniciosus in dog.

The phlebotomine sand fly Phlebotomus perniciosus is one of the main vectors of Leishmania infantum, responsible for human and canine leishmaniasis in the Mediterranean Basin. The objective of this study was to evaluate the repellent and insecticidal efficacy of imidacloprid 10% (w/v)/permethrin 50% (w/v) spot-on against sand flies (P. perniciosus) on dogs. The dogs used in this trial were laboratory-bred beagles: eight were impregnated with the solution (treated group), while the other eight were left untreated (control group). On day 0 the animals in the treatment group received 0.1 ml/kg body weight of the combination imidacloprid/permethrin spot-on. Dogs were exposed for 1h to about 100 female sand flies at weekly intervals for a period of 4 weeks, on day 1, 7, 14, 21, and 28 after applying the product. The repellency criterion was based on the feeding rate of sand flies in the treated compared to the untreated group. The insecticidal efficacy criterion was based on comparison of the survival rate of sand flies between the two groups. The product had an insecticidal efficacy on female sand flies of 53.2% (day 1), 49.4% (day 7), 15.1% (day 14), 13.2% (day 22), and 2.9% (day 29). The product showed a repellent effect of 97.7% (day 1), 96.3% (day 7), 96.5% (day 14), 92.7% (day 22), and 74.0% (day 29). Within the first week of application the insecticidal effect was significant; however it did not surpass 50%. On the other hand, the product showed a potent anti-feeding effect of over 90% during the first 3 weeks of this trial. Therefore, the application of this product every 3 weeks would be a good tool to significantly reduce sand fly bites over the period of transmission of vectorial diseases such as leishmaniasis and several arbovirosis such as Toscana virus.

Animals↗

PubMed2003

Blood-feeding performance of nymphs and adults of Triatoma brasiliensis on human hosts.

The blood-feeding behaviour of nymphs and adults of Triatoma brasiliensis fed on the forearm of human volunteers was studied by electronic monitoring of the cibarial pump. Parameters of total contact time (TT), initial weight (IW), weight gain (WG), ingestion rate (IR), pump frequency (F), quantity of liquid ingested per cibarial pump stroke (QLC) and non-ingestive time (NIT) (cumulative probing time and pumping interruptions during blood feeding) were measured. Protein profile (SDS-PAGE) and quantity of proteins of salivary gland extracts (QP) were also determined for each stage. The TT reflects the feeding performance of the insects and differed between instars, varying between 18.3+/-2.5 min for the first instar and 33.9+/-2.3 min for the fifth instar. The observed increase in the IR when comparing different instars was related to the increase in the cibarial pump volume inferred from the QLC data. During development, the volume of the cibarial pump grew asymmetrically determining the different contact times observed among the instars. Males and females presented a remarkable sexual dimorphism in respect to the volume of the cibarial pump, females showing a better performance compared to males. Despite the differences, the results show that each of the development stages of T. brasiliensis was able to obtain a relatively fast bloodmeal, with few interruptions and without causing pain, providing further evidence of the capacity of this species to adapt to domestic environments.

Animals↗

PubMed1997

Vector abundance and behaviour in an area of low malaria endemicity in Bataan, the Philippines.

The vectorial importance of known and potential vectors in Morong, Bataan, Philippines was assessed based on human and animal baited collections of adult mosquitoes and on larval collections. Anopheles flavirostris, the principal vector in the Philippines, was the most abundant among human landing catches, followed by An. maculatus sensu lato (s.l.). Both showed similar seasonal abundance with a peak during the early drier part of the year, which coincided with the peak in malaria cases. Both An. flavirostris and An. maculatus s.l. fed throughout the night with the broad peak of capture from 00:00 to 04:00 and from 22:00 to 00:00, respectively. The two species had similar parous rates (0.76 and 0.72, respectively) giving an average life span equivalent to four feeding cycles. Neither vector was abundant with average human landing rates on collectors of 0.6 and 0.4 mosquitoes per person per night, respectively over the study period. An. maculatus s.l. showed a stronger preference for outdoor feeding compared to An. flavirostris. An. maculatus s.l. was markedly zoophilic with a biting rate on water buffalo 50 times the human landing rate. An. flavirostris was less zoophilic with a corresponding ratio of 7.5. It was concluded that in this area, An. flavirostris is the principal vector. The combination of localised transmission, late night biting pattern and localised breeding sites of An. flavirostris suggest that the use of bed nets and environmental management are relevant control measures that can be implemented through community participation.

Animals↗

PubMed1999

Plant products used as mosquito repellents in Guinea Bissau, West Africa.

By standardized interviews of people in 23 rural villages, in the Oio region of Guinea Bissau, we collected data on which plant species and plant derived products or methods people use to reduce mosquito biting activity. The following plants were used to reduce numbers of mosquitoes indoors at night: fresh or smouldering Hyptis suaveolens Poit. (Lamiaceae), smoke of the bark of Daniellia oliveri Rolfe (Caesalpiniaceae), smoke of the infructescence of Elaeis guineensis Jacq. (Arecaceae), smoke of the seed capsules of Parkia biglobosa (Jacq.) Benth. (Mimosaceae), smoke of the leaves of Azadirachta indica A.Juss. (Meliaceae) and Eucalyptus sp. (Myrtaceae), fresh Ocimum canum Sims (Lamiaceae), and fresh Senna occidentalis (L.) Link (Caesalpiniaceae). In two field experiments we estimated the 'repellent activity' of certain of these plants and compared their efficacies with those of two commercially available mosquito repellents, i.e. 'positive' controls. In the first experiment we tested: smouldering H. suaveolens (85.4% repellency); fresh H. suaveolens (73.2%); burning of the bark of D. oliveri (74.7%); and smoke of the leaves of Eucalyptus (72.2%). In the second experiment we tested: smouldering H. suaveolens (83.6% repellency); fresh H. suaveolens (66.5%); burning of the bark of D. oliveri (77.9%); smoke of the leaves of A. indica (76.0%); smoke of the infructescence of E. guineensis (69.0%); fresh O. canum (63.6%); and fresh S. occidentalis; (29.4%). All the products tested, except S. occidentalis were significantly more effective than the negative control.

Animals↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Trypanosoma vivax: mechanical transmission in cattle by one of the most common African tabanids, Atylotus agrestis.

The role of mechanical vectors in the transmission of African livestock trypanosomes has always been controversial relative to tsetse flies, their cyclical vectors. An experiment was carried out in Burkina Faso to demonstrate mechanical transmission of Trypanosoma vivax by one of the most common tabanids in Africa: Atylotus agrestis. Eight heifers (crossbred zebuxBaoulé), free of trypanosome infection, were kept in a corral covered by a mosquito net, together with two heifers infected experimentally with a local stock of T. vivax. On average, 324 A. agrestis, freshly captured with Nzi traps, were introduced daily over 20 days. Parasitological, PCR and serological examinations were carried out regularly to assess infections and levels of parasitaemia. Microscopic examination of buffy-coats indicated that five of the eight receiver-heifers were infected on days 8, 13, 32, 41, and 48. PCR results indicated that these five heifers were already infected by day 13. Mechanical transmission of T. vivax by A. agrestis was demonstrated unequivocally, at a high rate (63% in 13-20 days). Conditions of transmission in this experiment are discussed in terms of natural rates of challenge. The importance of tabanids as mechanical vectors of T. vivax should be re-considered, in light of these results. Creation of tsetse free zones in Africa will generally lead to the disappearance of T. congolense, T. brucei, and most often T. vivax as well; however, in areas where T. vivax can be mechanically transmitted, clearance of tsetse may not be sufficient to eradicate livestock trypanosomosis.

Animals↗

PubMed1998

The effect of anti-sandfly saliva antibodies on Phlebotomus argentipes and Leishmania donovani.

A study was undertaken to find the effect of repeated bites of the sandfly, Phlebotomus argentipes, on its host as well as on the vector itself. The study also aimed to find the effect of the immune serum on the parasite, Leishmania donovani, naturally transmitted by the vector. The hamster which was exposed to sandfly feeding showed good antibody titre against the sandfly salivary-gland secretion, which indicates that the salivary-gland secretion is immunogenic in nature. The result also revealed that the feeding attraction of the females, which has been expressed as the percentage of engorgement, gradually decreased as the mortality rate increased during the subsequent bites. Similar mortality rate was observed when the flies were fed with the immune sera through an artificial membrane feeding method. When the sandflies were fed both with the immune sera and the blood-parasite (L. donovani) suspension, in addition to the major loss of the number of vectors, there was an inhibition of development in the gut and a concomitant reduction in the migration of the parasite in the surviving females. These results indicate that the anti-sandfly saliva immune sera probably bind with the respective antigen-presenting sites of the sandfly salivary gland and, thus, cause the sandfly death. The possible explanation of the inhibition of the forward movement of the parasites is that the attraction of the parasites to the oesophagus, mediated by the sandfly saliva, is inhibited by the anti-saliva antibodies. The importance of anti-sandfly saliva antibodies as a tool of vector control and also to block the transmission of leishmaniasis has been indicated.

Animals↗

PubMed2006

Insecticide-treated nets.

Insecticide-treated nets (ITNs) are the most powerful malaria control tool to be developed since the advent of indoor residual spraying (IRS) and chloroquine in the 1940s, and as such they have been an important component of global and national malaria control policies since the mid-1990s. Yet a decade later, coverage is still unacceptably low: only 3% of African children are currently sleeping under an ITN, and only about 20% are sleeping under any kind of net. This review charts the scientific, policy and programmatic progress of ITNs over the last 10 years. Available evidence for the range of programmatic delivery mechanisms used at country level is presented alongside the key policy debates that together have contributed to the evolution of ITN delivery strategies over the past decade. There is now global consensus around a strategic framework for scaling up ITN usage in Africa, which recognizes a role for both the public sector (targeting vulnerable groups to promote equity) and the private sector (sustainable supply). So, while progress with increasing coverage to date has been slow, there is now global support for the rapid scale-up of ITNs among vulnerable groups by integrating ITN delivery with maternal and child health programmes (and immunization in particular), at the same time working with the private sector in a complementary and supportive manner to ensure that coverage can be maintained for future generations of African children.

Animals↗