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PubMed1988

Myopia and intelligence: a pleiotropic relationship?

The well-established association between myopia and superior intelligence in the general population was investigated in a group of intellectually gifted children and their less gifted full siblings to determine whether the relationship of myopia to psychometric intelligence is consistent with the hypothesis of pleiotropy, i.e., both characteristics are affected by the same gene or set of genes. Failure to find a difference in degree of myopia, assessed as a metric variable, between intellectually gifted and nongifted siblings would contradict pleiotropy. A variety of possible causal pathways, both genetic and environmental, have been hypothesized in the literature to explain the relationship between intelligence and myopia, and these still cannot be ruled out. It is theoretically noteworthy, however, in view of the independent evidence for the considerable heritability of both intelligence and myopia, that the highly significant gifted-nongifted sibling difference in myopia found in the present study is consistent with the hypothesis that intelligence and myopia are related pleiotropically.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2001

Diisopropylfluorophosphate alters retinal neurotransmitter levels and reduces experimentally-induced myopia.

The excessive enlargement of the eye seen in myopia is known to be regulated, in part, by retinal neurotransmitters. One excitatory retinal neurotransmitter, acetylcholine, has been implicated in the signal cascade through the effectiveness of the muscarinic antagonist, atropine, in preventing myopia development. The present study therefore examined whether an indirect cholinomimetic, diisopropylfluorophosphate (DFP), could increase the level of experimental myopia, induced by the deprivation of pattern vision. Injections of either phosphate-buffered DFP or phosphate-buffered saline were made every 48 h into the vitreous chamber of one eye of chicks. The injected eye was then deprived of pattern vision by a translucent occluder. The fellow eye remained untreated and acted as a genetic control. At the end of the treatment period (8 days) axial ocular dimensions and cycloplegic refractive error were measured. To investigate the effects of DFP on retinal neurotransmitter levels, measurements of acetylcholine and dopamine contents were made on retinal tissue following either a single or multiple DFP injections, using reverse phase high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Rather than potentiating myopia and vitreous chamber elongation, a significant reduction in myopia (58%) was observed in DFP-injected deprived eyes, compared to saline controls. However, open eyes injected with DFP showed no difference in refraction or vitreous chamber depth compared to contralateral control eyes or saline controls. HPLC analysis revealed increased steady-state content of acetylcholine (+34 +/- 6 ng/mg protein, mean +/- SEM, P<0.01, equivalent to a 54% increase) and dopamine (+377 +/- 83 pg/mg protein, P<0.01, a 36% increase) in DFP-treated eyes compared to contralateral control eyes following a single DFP injection. No changes in either acetylcholine or dopamine content were found in saline-treated control animals. Injection of dopamine antagonists, in combination with DFP, indicated that the DFP-induced reduction in myopia is mediated, at least in part, through a D2 receptor mechanism. Findings argue against a direct cholinergic 'stop-go' pathway controlling ocular growth. Instead the reduction of induced myopia could be related to the action of DFP (directly or indirectly) on dopamine levels in the retina.

Acetylcholine↗

PubMed2006

Analysis of single nucleotide polymorphisms at 13 loci within the transforming growth factor-induced factor gene shows no association with high myopia in Japanese subjects.

A previous study in China first indicated that the transforming growth factor-induced factor (TGIF) is a probable candidate gene for high myopia. The purpose of our study was to investigate whether there are significant associations between high myopia and single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) variants in the TGIF gene of Japanese subjects. Genomic DNA was collected from 330 Japanese subjects with high myopia and at a level refractive error was less than -9.25 Dsph and 330 randomized controls without high myopia. Thirteen SNPs were detected by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and primer extension or by PCR and SNP-specific fluorogenic probes in all of the cases and controls. Thirteen SNPs were found within the TGIF genes of the cases and controls. Two of the SNPs were monomorphic and none of the 13 SNPs showed a significant result. The pairwise linkage disequilibrium (LD) mapping confirmed that these alleles have a comparatively strong LD index of >0.8 for D' and >0.4 for r(2). We found no statistical association between any of the 13 SNPs located on the TGIF gene and high myopia in Japanese subjects. Based on our study using Japanese subjects and the previous studies of TGIF gene polymorphism in Chinese and northern European subjects with myopia, there is no convincing evidence to prove a connection between nucleotide sequence variations in TGIF and high myopia.

Adult↗

PubMed1998

[LASIK for myopia correction. 2-year follow-up].

BACKGROUND: Long-term results on LASIK are not available to date. We therefore evaluated the predictability, stability and complication rate after LASIK in moderate--to-high myopia. PATIENTS AND METHODS: We treated 70 eyes (41 patients) using the Automatic Corneal Shaper and the Keracor 116 excimer laser. Patients were followed for 1, 6, 12 and 24 months. Spectacle refraction, visual acuity, rate of retreatment, and patient satisfaction were evaluated. RESULTS: At 24 months the results were as follows: Myopia -5 to -9.9 D (n = 18): 94% within 1 D; regression between 1 and 12 (12 and 24) months > 1 D in 6% (6%); uncorrected acuity 20/40 or better in 83%; no loss of 2 ore more lines of visual acuity; 89% highly satisfied. Myopia -10 to -14.9 D (n = 12): 88% within 1 D; regression between 1 and 12 (12 and 24) months > 1 D in 20% (0%); uncorrected acuity 20/40 or better in 72%; 4% lost 2 or more lines of visual acuity; 96% highly satisfied. Myopia -15 to -29 D (n = 22): 33% within 1 D; regression between 1 and 12 (12 and 24) months > 1 D in 41% (18%); uncorrected acuity 20/40 or better in 7%; no loss of 2 or more lines of visual acuity; 67% highly satisfied. CONCLUSION: LASIK is an accurate, effective and stable procedure for correcting myopia of -5 to -10 D. Results are less precise in myopia up to -15 D, and some visual loss occurs in a number of patients. In myopia > -15 D, results are not satisfactory because of poor accuracy and low stability.

Adult↗

PubMed1996

Melatonin and deprivation myopia in chickens.

Chicken eyes elongate and become myopic if they are covered with translucent diffusors which degrade the retinal image ('deprivation myopia'). Since it has been shown that dopamine D2/D4 receptors (which mediate inhibition of melatonin synthesis) are also implicated in deprivation myopia, we have studied the role of melatonin in the visual control of eye growth. We have found that (1) diurnal melatonin rhythms and melatonin content in the retina are unchanged during deprivation myopia development despite the breakdown of both diurnal growth rhythms of the eye and diurnal rhythms in retinal dopamine metabolism, (2) diurnal melatonin rhythms and melatonin content in the retina remain unchanged after application of the neurotoxin 5,7-dihydroxytryptamine (5,7-DHT) and presumably also after 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) application which both have a suppressive effect on deprivation myopia and (3) deprivation myopia was slightly reduced in both eyes after unilateral intravitreal injection of melatonin, despite that deprivation myopia is based on a mechanism intrinsic to the eye. We conclude that melatonin is not involved in the retinal signaling pathway translating visual experience to deprivation myopia.

5,7-Dihydroxytryptamine↗

PubMed2005

High myopia associated with retinopathy of prematurity is primarily lenticular.

PURPOSE: To determine which of the eye's refractive components are responsible for the high myopia in retinopathy of prematurity (ROP), as compared with highly myopic eyes in full-term patients. METHODS: The study included 53 highly myopic eyes in 34 patients with a history of ROP, and 66 highly myopic eyes in 37 full-term patients. Measurements included refraction, keratometry, and A-scan values for axial length, lens thickness, lens position, anterior chamber depth, anterior segment depth, and lens power calculations. Comparisons were also made with published age-matched, full-term normal controls. RESULTS: Refractions ranged from a spherical-equivalent of -5.0 to -20.75, and from -5.0 to -22.0 diopters in ROP and full-term eyes, respectively. For ROP eyes, increasing myopia was most associated with lens thickness and lens power ( P < 0.001), with lesser contributions from corneal steepness, axial length, and a more forward position of the lens's center. For the eyes with myopia in full-term patients, increasing myopia was highly associated with axial length ( P < 0.001), with smaller contributions from increased lens thickness and lens power. ROP eyes had a lens-thickness/anterior-chamber-depth ratio almost 50% higher than FT and normative eyes. Anterior segment depth was remarkably similar in all eyes studied. CONCLUSIONS: High myopia associated with ROP appears pathophysiologically distinct from high myopia in full-term patients. The increased lens thickness seen in ROP eyes was accompanied by shallower anterior chamber depth and maintenance of the anterior segment depth, similar to the normal neonatal eye, suggesting a mechanism of altered anterior segment development in ROP leading to high myopia.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2006

Myopia as a latent phenotype of a pleiotropic gene positively selected for facilitating neurocognitive development, and the effects of environmental factors in its expression.

Myopia has become an almost pandemic problem in many populations. There are compelling evidence to suggest that myopia is a hereditary condition. However, myopia would constitute a definite selection disadvantage during most stages of human evolution, which is incompatible with its moderate to high prevalence in most modern populations. The rapid upsurge of myopia over just a few decades also implies that its inheritance does not follow any of the usual patterns, and environmental factors may have an important role in precipitating its occurrence in those who are genetically predisposed. Previous studies showed that myopes were, on average, more intelligent than non-myopes, and this association had been attributed to a biological link between eye growth and brain development. We propose a pleiotropic genetic model to explain the atypical epidemiologic and inheritance pattern of myopia and its relationship with neurocognitive development. This pleiotropic gene was positively selected for its facilitation of human intelligence. The myopic component is a latent phenotype; myopia will not be expressed unless some novel external factors are encountered (i.e. a "quirk" phenomenon). Therefore, the myopic component was selectively neutral in our ancestral environment. The net gain in Darwinian fitness enables the pleiotropic gene to attain a high frequency in the human population, as reflected by our current prevalence of myopia.

Animals↗

PubMed2006

Objective real-time measurement of instrument myopia in microscopists under different viewing conditions.

While instrument myopia is known to occur when microscopes are used, little is known about the accommodation response during microscopy, or about the factors which may alter the magnitude of instrument myopia. In addition, there has been no real-time objective measurement of instrument myopia during the microscopy task. Twenty inexperienced subjects and 10 experienced microscopists (average work experience of 4.8 years (SD 3.2 yr)) with mean age of 24.1 years (SD 2.9 yr) and 31.2 years (SD 2.9 yr) respectively were recruited to the study. Instrument myopia was measured using an infrared photorefractor (PowerRefractor) under different viewing conditions and microscope settings (with different forms of refractive error correction, changes in target quality, changes in eyepiece power settings, changes in magnification and changes in illumination of the target). Instrument myopia was greater in inexperienced (1.98 D (SD 0.91 D)) than in experienced (1.38 D (SD 0.75 D)) microscope users. There was no statistically significant change in the level of instrument myopia under the different viewing conditions or different microscope settings, and there were large individual variations. Other factors may play more of a role in determining the degree of instrument myopia during microscopy than the task variables altered here.

Accommodation, Ocular↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Familial pathologic myopia, corneal dystrophy, and deafness: a new syndrome.

BACKGROUND: Numerous syndromes with myopia and hearing loss have been described up to now. We present a family with pathologic myopia, corneal dystrophy, and deafness distinct from these syndromes. CASES: Ten patients in the same Turkish family were evaluated by ophthalmologic, audiologic, physical, radiologic, genetic, serologic, and biochemical examinations. OBSERVATIONS: Ophthalmic examination indicated that all the cases had myopia, 7 of them had pathologic myopia, 1 had intermediate, and 2 had mild. Four of the patients with pathologic myopia had corneal dystrophy that was bilaterally manifest as white opacities in the posterior stroma near Descemet's membrane in an axial distribution; 1 of these 4 patients also had a tilted disc. Otolaryngologic examination revealed conductive hearing loss in 3 cases, mixed hearing loss in 2, and sensorineural hearing loss in 1. The results of karyotypic analyses of all cases were normal. The pedigree analysis showed the disease was inherited through successive generations as an autosomal dominant trait. The results of biochemical, serologic, and radiologic investigations were normal. The same pathophysiologic process in all cases seemed to account for the myopia, the corneal dystrophy and the deafness. CONCLUSIONS: To our knowledge, this type of case has not been reported in the literature. Therefore, we named this syndrome "familial pathologic myopia, corneal dystrophy and deafness."

Adolescent↗

PubMed1998

The susceptible period for deprivation-induced myopia in tree shrew.

To examine the susceptible period for deprivation-induced myopia, six groups of tree shrew pups (Tupaia glis belangeri) were monocularly deprived for 12 days with an opaque occluder starting 7, 15, 21, 33, 48, or 63 days after natural eyelid opening. Compared to the untreated fellow control eye, significant myopia and vitreous chamber elongation were produced by the deprivation in all six groups. The effect was greater in the middle three groups in comparison with the youngest and the two oldest groups and the amount of induced myopia and axial elongation was not proportional to the normal rate of axial growth. The peak period of susceptibility was between approximately 15 and 45 days after eye opening during the juvenile, slow-elongation phase of ocular development when the eye is within 7% of its adult axial length. Significant myopia and axial elongation were also induced in adult animals by 70 days of monocular deprivation. To examine recovery from deprivation-induced myopia, the occluder was removed at the end of the 12 day deprivation period. After an additional 48 days of binocular visual experience, no significant myopia was present in the previously deprived eyes in any experimental group. During the recovery period, the elongation rate of the previously deprived eyes was reduced in comparison with the control eyes while normal corneal flattening and lens development continued, thus reducing the myopia. No difference in corneal curvature, relative to the untreated control eyes, was found after deprivation or after the recovery period. Data are presented which suggests that changes in the thickness of the choroid may occur in this mammal during deprivation and recovery that are in the same direction, but of smaller magnitude, than those reported in the chicken. The results of this study provide evidence that visually guided emmetropization occurs in this mammalian species during a period of ocular development analogous to the juvenile period in humans.

Animals↗

PubMed1992

Development of myopia in infants with birth weights less than 1251 grams. The Cryotherapy for Retinopathy of Prematurity Cooperative Group.

The authors report on the incidence of myopia in a large group of premature infants with birth weights of less than 1251 g followed as part of the multicenter study of Cryotherapy for Retinopathy of Prematurity. None of the eyes reported here underwent cryotherapy. Eyes were refracted using cycloplegic retinoscopy at 3 months (n = 2916), 12 months (n = 2626), and 24 months (n = 961 at 5 of the 23 centers) after term. Myopia was observed in approximately 20% of the children at each test age. The percentage of high myopia (greater than or equal to 5 diopters) doubled from 2% to 4.6% between 3 and 12 months and remained stable thereafter. Lower birth weight and increasing severity of retinopathy of prematurity (ROP) were strong predictors of myopia and high myopia. In addition, anisometropia, astigmatism, and the presence of posterior pole residua from ROP also were associated with a higher incidence of myopia and high myopia.

Anisometropia↗

PubMed1998

Results of laser in situ keratomileusis in different degrees of myopia.

PURPOSE: This study aimed to analyze the results of laser in situ keratomileusis (LASIK) in different degrees of myopia. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Three hundred consecutive eyes were divided into 4 groups according to their degree of preoperative myopia. Group I was between -3 and -6 diopters (D) (28 eyes), low myopia. Group II was between -6.25 and -10 D (138 eyes), moderate myopia. Group III was between -10.25 and -15 D (91 eyes), high myopia. Group IV was between -15.25 and -25.50 D (43 eyes), extremely high myopia. Patients were observed for 6 to 25 months. RESULTS: For group I, the preoperative spherical equivalent was -5.12 D +/- 0.81 standard deviation (SD), corrected visual acuity was 0.88 +/- 0.14 (SD), and keratometry was 44.09 D +/- 1.65 (SD). At the last check-up, the spherical equivalent was -0.42 D +/- 0.98 (SD), corrected visual acuity was 0.89 +/- 0.15 (SD), keratometry was 39.11 D +/- 1.61 (SD). For group II, preoperative spherical equivalent was -8.33 D +/- 1.24 (SD), corrected visual acuity was 0.72 +/- 0.22 (SD), keratometry was 44.34 D +/- 1.64 (SD). At last check-up, the spherical equivalent was -0.19 D +/- 1.22 (SD), corrected visual acuity was 0.76 +/- 0.17 (SD), keratometry was 37.56 D +/- 1.90 (SD). For group III, the preoperative spherical equivalent was -12.37 D +/- 1.49 (SD), corrected visual acuity was 0.58 +/- 0.23 (SD), and keratometry was 44.06 D +/- 1.63 (SD). At last check-up, spherical equivalent was -0.55 D +/- 1.63 (SD), corrected visual acuity was 0.61 +/- 0.18 (SD), and keratometry was 35.88 D +/- 2.18 (SD). For group IV, the preoperative spherical equivalent was -19.04 +/- 2.82 (SD), corrected visual acuity was 0.37 +/- 0.17 (SD), and keratometry was 44.02 D +/- 1.30 (SD). At last check-up, spherical equivalent was -1.49 D +/- 1.54 (SD), corrected visual acuity was 0.44 +/- 0.18 (SD), and keratometry was 33.94 D +/- 2.54 (SD). CONCLUSION: With some exceptions, LASIK results generally are acceptable and stable. Nevertheless, the scatter of some cases shows that there is room for improvement, even in the most sophisticated excimer software. The high regression of group I proves the need to sample multizone software to determine whether stability is improved. Although visual results are better in patients with lower myopia, the patients whose eyes had higher ametropia more often showed improvement in their visual acuity. This may be because of the greater postoperative size of the image on the macula.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2002

Comparison of photorefractive keratectomy, astigmatic PRK, laser in situ keratomileusis, and astigmatic LASIK in the treatment of myopia.

PURPOSE: To determine factors affecting refractive and visual outcomes in patients treated with astigmatic and spherical photorefractive keratectomy (A-PRK and PRK) and laser in situ keratomileusis (A-LASIK and LASIK). SETTING: University referral refractive surgery clinic. METHODS: Refractive and visual acuity results in 619 eyes of 388 consecutive patients having refractive surgery over a 2-year period by a single surgeon were retrospectively analyzed. Patients were divided into mild-to-moderate myopia (spherical equivalent [SE] less than -6.12 diopters [D]) and high myopia (SE -6.12 D or higher). Multivariate and logistic regression analyses were performed. RESULTS: Refractive results in flap-based and PRK-based procedures were comparable in mild-to-moderate myopia patients but were significantly better in high-myopia patients having flap-based procedures. Refractive stability was greater in flap-based procedures than in PRK-based procedures. Elliptical ablations yielded a marked reduction in the astigmatic cylinder in patients having A-LASIK and A-PRK, while spherical PRK induced small amounts of with-the-rule astigmatism. Complications were uncommon in both groups, consisting primarily of epithelial ingrowth in flap-based procedures and haze in PRK-based procedures. Multivariate regression identified the preoperative SE as a significant determinant of PRK outcomes (with higher success for lower myopia) and intraocular pressure as a minor determinant of outcomes in PRK-based and flap-based procedures. Logistic regression suggested that only the preoperative SE was a significant factor in predicting the likelihood of poor outcomes in PRK patients. CONCLUSIONS: Refractive outcomes were almost identical in patients having elliptical or spherical ablations with flap-based or PRK-based procedures. In eyes with mild-to-moderate myopia, there was little difference in refractive or visual outcomes between flap-based and PRK-based procedures; in eyes with high myopia, flap-based procedures offered more predictable refractive outcomes and better visual outcomes.

Adult↗

PubMed1996

Excimer photorefractive keratectomy for low myopia and astigmatism with the Coherent-Schwind Keratom.

PURPOSE: To summarize the initial results of excimer laser photorefractive keratectomy (PRK) in 114 eyes of 89 patients using the Coherent-Schwind system and assess its safety, efficacy, and predictability. SETTING: Hospital San Jose de Monterrey-ITESM, Mexico. METHODS: The Coherent-Schwind Keratom excimer laser was used to correct low myopia (manifest spherical equivalent from -1.00 to -6.00 diopters [D], with manifest cylinder of -1.00 D or less) or myopic astigmatism (manifest spherical equivalent from -2.75 to -6.75 D, with manifest cylinder from -1.00 to -4.50 D) with standard settings. Ablation zone diameters were from 5.9 to 6.3 mm (low myopia) and 5.9 to 8.2 mm (astigmatism) with a repetition rate of 12 Hz. Follow-up was from 1 month (low myopia, n = 71; astigmatism, n = 35) to 6 months (low myopia, n = 36; astigmatism, n = 17). RESULTS: Six months after PRK, uncorrected visual acuity was 20/40 or better in 94% of the low myopia eyes (n = 36) and 77% of the astigmatism eyes (n = 17). Intended correction was within 1.00 D of the target spherical equivalent in 81 and 88% of eyes, respectively. No eyes in the low myopia group lost two lines of best corrected visual acuity, although 12% in the astigmatism group did. CONCLUSION: The Coherent-Schwind excimer laser appears to be effective in the treatment of low myopia and astigmatism, with results comparable to those of other laser systems after 6 months of follow-up. Further study of best corrected visual acuity loss after treatment of compound myopic astigmatism with this laser is warranted.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1999

Prevalence of myopia in school children in the Sultanate of Oman: a nation-wide study of 6292 randomly selected children.

PURPOSE: Between 1992 to 1994 in the Sultanate of Oman, 6292 randomly selected school children from Grade 1 (6-year-olds) and Grade 6 (12-year-olds) were examined for visual acuity. The purpose of this paper is to present results that relate to the prevalence of myopia in this population. METHODS: All children with uncorrected visual acuity below 0.5 in one or both eyes received a thorough eye examination including cycloplegic retinoscopy. RESULTS: In the 6-year-olds there was an overall myopia (> or =-1.0 D) of 0.56% and in the 12-year-olds there was 5.16%. In rural, remote areas there was statistically significantly less myopia in the older group when compared with the rest of the country. In the town of Nizwa in the region of Dakhlia, the value for high myopia (> or =-7.0 diopters) in 12-year-old girls was 2.82% compared to an average prevalence 0.13%. CONCLUSION: In the Sultanate of Oman the prevalence of myopia showed consistency with findings in Europe and North America. There was significantly less myopia in remote areas. An increased prevalence of high myopia was seen in one of Oman's major cities.

Child↗

PubMed2000

Effects of prostaglandins on form deprivation myopia in the chick.

PURPOSE: To investigate the possible role of endogenous prostaglandins in the development of form deprivation myopia, as well as the effects of exogenous prostaglandins using atropine as a positive control. METHODS: Monocular form deprivation was accomplished by mounting a translucent occluder on one eye of 2-3 day old chicks for 1-4 weeks. Ocular occlusion for 1-2 weeks was used for pharmacological blocking experiments. The axial length of the eye was measured by ultrasonography. RESULTS: Indomethacin, administered intramuscularly, subconjunctivally or intravitreally had no significant effect on myopia development. Exogenous PGE2, PGF2alpha and latanoprost acid administered subconjunctivally, or topically as isopropyl ester eyedrops had no statistically significant effect on the myopia development. However, PGF2alpha significantly (p<0.01) attenuated the development of myopia after intravitreal injection. The other two prostaglandins had no statistically significant effect. CONCLUSIONS: Endogenous prostaglandins are unlikely to play a significant role in the development of form deprivation myopia in the chick. However, PGF2alpha suprisingly seems to retard the development of form deprivation myopia, but only when administered intravitreally. Whether the mechanism of the myopia retardation is direct or indirect remains unknown.

Administration, Topical↗

PubMed1992

Congenital and developmental myopia.

Both hereditary and environmental factors are important in the interactive growth of the ocular tissues responsible for determining the refractive state of the eye. Myopia has a low prevalence in otherwise healthy children and is seen with an increased prevalence early in life in many systemic and ocular diseases. Predicting how refractive error will change in any individual child after birth or at any stage of ocular development is not possible at present, although, trends can be seen in longitudinal studies. In the disease states associated with an increased prevalence of myopia, information regarding the time of onset of myopia and the specific values for the refractive components, is lacking, so that underlying mechanisms of myopia development and whether the myopia is congenital or developmental, are not known. In adults, three different types of myopia can be characterised on the basis of clinical characteristics which have prognostic significance for ocular disease. The mechanisms of ocular growth that lead to these forms of myopia are not clear. At present, treatments to prevent or slow myopic progression have been marginally beneficial and of questionable value.

Adult↗

PubMed2026

Identifying potential therapeutic targets for high myopia via a case-control study and Mendelian randomisation analyses of the human blood metabolome.

BACKGROUND: High myopia increases the risk of pathological ocular changes that may lead to irreversible vision loss. Therefore, the identification of potential biomarkers and therapeutic targets for high myopia is essential for early intervention and prevention. METHODS: Summary statistics for 122 blood metabolites were obtained from three genome-wide association studies (GWASs), whereas data on high myopia were derived from a large GWAS conducted with 50,372 participants from the UK Biobank. Mendelian randomisation (MR) analyses were conducted to assess the causal relationships between blood metabolites and high myopia. A real-world case-control study was conducted to validate the causal associations identified in the MR analyses. RESULTS: The systematic MR analysis identified 5 blood metabolites as both biomarkers and potential drug targets for high myopia, including glutamine (odds ratio [OR]: 0.98, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.97-1.00), tyrosine (OR: 0.98; 95% CI: 0.97-0.99), degree of unsaturation (OR: 0.98, 95% CI: 0.98-0.99), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) (OR: 0.99; 95% CI: 0.98-1.00) and isobutyrylcarnitine (OR: 1.09, 95% CI: 1.05-1.13). The case-control study indicated that the levels of glutamine (OR = 0.76, 95% CI: 0.58-0.98) and tyrosine (OR = 0.72, 95% CI: 0.55-0.94) were significantly associated with a decreased risk of high myopia. CONCLUSIONS: Systematic MR analysis suggested that glutamine, tyrosine, the degree of unsaturation, DHA, and isobutyrylcarnitine may represent promising drug targets for high myopia prevention. Further investigations are needed to validate the therapeutic efficacy and elucidate the underlying mechanisms involved.

Humans↗