Studies on hemolytic Escherichia coli associated with edema disease of swine. III. The effect of hemolytic and nonhemolytic Escherichia coli endotoxin on the blood of swine.
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Animals↗
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Attempts to produce experimental edema disease in swine by parenterally injecting Escherichia coli serotype O139:K82:H1.
Twenty-two pigs were inoculated parenterally with various E. coli 0139:K82:H1 preparations. Clinical signs of disease in pigs injected with freeze-thaw extract consisted of early listlessness, diarrhea and, later, hyperirritability of varying intensity in some animals.Hemorrhagic gastroenteritis involving the duodenum, spiral colon and the fundic portion of the stomach, and ulceration of the fundic stomach were observed at post-mortem examination of pigs inoculated parenterallly with living culture or freeze-thaw extract. No significant lesions were observed in pigs inoculated with ultrasonic or hypotonic acid-saline extract. In pigs injected with living culture or freeze-thaw extract, the histological alterations consisted of moderate perivascular edema of the brain, marked hepatic parenchymal cell degeneration, hepatic subserosal edema and "toxic" lymph nodes, when compared to the control group.
Animals↗
The effect of relative humidity on swine vesicular disease virus in dried films before and during formaldehyde fumigation.
Swine Vesicular Disease virus (SVDV) did not survive drying at high relative humidities (r.h.) but there was little virus loss at low r.h. Purified virus dried in films was inactivated by formaldehyde fumigation only at high r.h. Inactivation was also influenced by the suspending medium from which the virus was dried. Purified virus resuspended in distilled water and then dried, was rapidly killed, but that in tissue culture fluid survived.
Animals↗
Treatment of edema disease of swine.
Antihistamine (Allermin) was used sucessfully in the treatment of naturally occurring edema disease of swine under the field and laboratory conditions. A high recovery rate (88.8%) was obtained in the group of pigs with mild clinical signs. The intravenous route of Allermin administration had definite beneficial value. The release of histamine induced by circulating immune-complexes may be responsible for the clinical signs characteristic of edema disease. Three pigs that recovered clinically following the Allermin treatment were examined histologically. Fibrinoid persisted in the vascular walls at least 30 days after the initiation of the treatment. The fibrinoid vasculitis, generalized eosinophilia at the tissue level, and favorable response of pigs to antihistamine treatment suggest that edema disease may be caused by allergy.
Acetazolamide↗
Outbreaks of swine vesicular disease in japan: virus isolation and epizootiological survey.
Outbreaks of a vesicular disease occurred among pigs in Kanagawa and Ibaraki Prefectures in Japan in November, 1973. Another outbreak was observed in Aichi Prefecture in December. The clinical signs of the disease observed included fever and vesicular lesions on the coronary bands, bulbs of the heel and in the interdigital spaces. In some pigs, vesicular lesions were observed on the snout, tongue and skin overlying the legs and abdomen. All the vesicular samples produced cytopathic changes on cultures of primary swine kidney cells of PK-15 cells. Three isolates of cytopathic agents tested were identified as swine vesicular disease virus from their physicochemical properties and antigenicity. The virus strains isolated from vesicular epithelial samples obtained from Ibaraki, Kanagawa and Aichi Prefectures were designated as Japan/Ibaraki/1/73, Japan/Kanagawa/1/73 and Japan/Aichi/1/73 strain, respectively. An outbreak of the disease among pigs due to swine vesicular disease virus was confirmed by the serum neutralization test with serum samples collected from pigs on affected farms. Approximately 80% of the pigs housed in affected shed showed high levels of neutralizing antibody titers. This is the first to report an occurrence of swine vesicular disease among pigs in Japan.
Animals↗
Interpretive criteria for antimicrobial susceptibility testing of ceftiofur against bacteria associated with swine respiratory disease.
Ceftiofur, an extended-spectrum cephalosporin, is active against a variety of animal pathogens, including organisms associated with swine respiratory disease. However, minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) breakpoint and disk diffusion interpretive criteria have not been established for swine pathogens. Susceptibility tests were performed by broth microdilution MIC and disk diffusion methods on 246 bacterial species that cause swine respiratory disease. Ceftiofur was active against Salmonella sp., Pasteurella multocida, Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae, Streptococcus suis, and Escherichia coli but was not active against Bordetella bronchiseptica measured by MIC. Based on pharmacokinetic studies of ceftiofur in swine after a single intramuscular injection of 3 or 5 mg/kg body weight of ceftiofur and on the MIC and disk diffusion data, we recommend MIC breakpoints and disk diffusion distances, respectively, of < or = 2 micrograms/ml and > or = 21 mm for susceptible, 4 micrograms/ml and 18-20 mm for intermediate, and > or = 8 micrograms/ml and > or = 17 mm for resistant classification for swine pathogens. When these breakpoints were applied to data from a previous study using bovine pathogens, only 1 minor interpretive error occurred.
Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae↗
Comparison of swine vesicular disease virus and Coxsackie B5 virus by serological and RNA hybridization methods.
The relatedness of swine vesicular disease virus (SVDV) and Coxsackie B5 virus has been studied by virus neutralization and immunodiffusion tests and by hybridization of the virus RNAs. Clearly defined differences between the two viruses were found by the three methods. Isolates of SVDV from several countries were very closely related but could be differentiated. Recent isolates of Coxsackie B5 virus also appeared to be similar but clear differences could be detected between these and the prototype (Faulkner) strain of the virus. The SVDV isolates were more closely related to the Faulkner strain than to the recent isolates of Coxsackie B5 virus. Perhaps of more importance, the Faulkner strain was more closely related to SVDV than it was to the recent Coxsackie B5 isolates. The significance of these observations in relation to the recent emergence of swine vesicular disease is discussed.
Animals↗
Experiments on the preparations and testing of associated vaccine against foot and mouth disease and vesicular disease in swine.
Tests for associated immunization of swine against Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD) and Vesicular Disease (SVD) of swine were carried out. As a result of this investigation, it was established that the prepared and tested inactivated oil vaccine is harmless and immunogenic in sensitive animals. In investigating the course of immunity, the presence of antibody against both antigens was demonstrated in vaccinated animals. All once-vaccinated animals were defended against the virus of SVD during challenge, and 75% of them were defended against FMD. After revaccination, all immunized swine were defended against infection with both viruses. The question of the quality of the associated vaccine and the possibilities of its massive use in industrial swine rearing was discussed.
Adjuvants, Immunologic↗
Isotype specific ELISAs to detect antibodies against swine vesicular disease virus and their use in epidemiology.
Isotype specific ELISAs to detect antibodies against swine vesicular disease, which may help to estimate the moment of infection, were developed and validated on sera from pigs experimentally infected with four different isolates of swine vesicular disease virus. Virus specific IgM antibodies could be detected from days 3-49 and occasionally up to day 91 after infection. IgG1 antibodies were first detected at day 8 and IgG2 at day 11. IgA antibodies coincided with IgG1 antibodies, but antibody titres varied widely. From the results obtained with the sera from the experimentally infected pigs, we calculated the day at which 50% of the pigs had become positive (D50). A D50 of 5, 4, 12, 12 and 24 days was calculated, respectively, for the appearance of antibodies in the virus neutralization test, the IgM, total IgG, IgG1 and IgG2 ELISA. A D50 of 49 days was calculated for the disappearance of IgM antibodies. The isotype specific ELISAs proved to be valuable tools to study the epidemiology of the disease.
Animals↗
Structure of swine vesicular disease virus: mapping of changes occurring during adaptation of human coxsackie B5 virus to infect swine.
The structure of swine vesicular disease virus (SVDV) was solved and refined at a 3.0-A resolution by X-ray crystallography to gain information about the role of sequence changes that occurred as this virus evolved from the parental human pathogen coxsackievirus B5 (CVB5). These amino acid substitutions can be clustered in five distinct regions: (i) the antigenic sites, (ii) the hydrophobic pocket of the VP1 beta-sandwich, (iii) the putative CAR binding site, (iv) the putative heparan sulfate binding site, and (v) the fivefold axis. The VP1 pocket is occupied by a branched pocket factor, apparently different from that present in the closely related virus CVB3 and in other picornaviruses. This finding may be relevant for the design of new antiviral compounds against this site. Density consistent with the presence of ions was observed on the fivefold and threefold axes. The structure also provided an accurate description of the putative receptor binding sites.
Adaptation, Physiological↗
Embryo transfer as a means of controlling the transmission of viral infections. X. The in vivo exposure of zona pellucida-intact porcine embryos to swine vesicular disease virus.
Two experiments involving the transfer of embryos from donors infected with swine vesicular disease virus (SVDV) to "clean" recipients were carried out. In Experiment 1, 47 embryos were collected from 4 SVDV-infected donors and transferred to 2 recipients that subsequently produced 10 piglets. All of the recipients and piglets remained seronegative for SVDV. In addition to the transfers, 10 embryos and 58 unfertilized eggs from the infected donors were assayed in vitro and found to be negative for SVDV infectivity. A fifth donor was also inoculated with SVDV in this experiment, but it could not be demonstrated that infection had occurred. This SVDV-exposed donor provided two embryos for transfer and one embryo and two unfertilized eggs for in vitro assay. In Experiment 2, 158 embryos from 9 infected donors were transferred to 7 recipients, resulting in 12 piglets. A total of 7 embryos and 37 unfertilized eggs were assayed in vitro. The recipients, piglets, and embryos/eggs were all negative for SVDV infectivity. Although a final conclusion on the safety of using embryo transfer for the control of swine vesicular disease (SVD) is not possible, the results obtained justify additional studies.
Journal Article↗
Involvement of water-soluble vitamins in diseases of swine.
The various roles of the water-soluble vitamins (including choline and vitamin C) in diseases of swine are outlined. The most important role is in the prevention of deficiency disease; another important role is in relation to the immune response. Deficiency signs relating to each vitamin are described and the metabolism of each vitamin is outlined. Recent estimates of requirements are set out, together with suggestions on supplementation of practical diets for swine.
Animals↗
Study of the potential involvement of pseudorabies virus in swine respiratory disease.
In order to investigate the potential involvement of pseudorabies virus (PRV) in swine respiratory disease, nine week old pigs were intranasally inoculated with the PRV strain 4892. Two doses of infection were used: 10(4.5) median tissue culture infectious doses (TCID50)/pig and 10(3.5) TCID50/pig, with ten pigs per group. In the group of pigs inoculated with 10(4.5) TCID50, seven out of ten pigs died within six days after inoculation. The mortality rate in the group of pigs inoculated with the lower dose was only two out of ten and, there were several pigs in this group that showed signs of respiratory distress besides some mild nervous signs. Pseudorabies virus was isolated from various tissues collected postmortem, including alveolar macrophages. Virus localization in tissues was also detected by in situ hybridization. The histopathological examination of the respiratory tract tissues revealed a pathological process that was progressing from mild pneumonia to severe suppurative bronchopneumonia. The isolation of virus from alveolar macrophages provides support to the hypothesis that replication of PRV during the course of infection produces an impairment of the defense mechanisms in the respiratory tract.
Animals↗
General pathology of experimental swine vesicular disease.
Twenty-four minimal disease pigs were inoculated intracerebrally, intravenously or intradermally with an English strain of swine vesicular disease virus. In the skin, snout, tongue and tonsil the main lesion was a full-thickness coagulative necrosis of the stratified squamous epithelium. In the renal pelvis, bladder, tonsillar crypts and the collecting ducts of salivary glands and pancreas, epithelial degeneration with the formation of periodic acid-Schiff-positive material were consistent features of this disease. Histopathological examination alone could not be relied upon to differentiate between well-established skin lesions caused by swine vesicular disease and foot and mouth disease. The relationship between vesicular disease and Coxsackie B5 is discussed briefly.
Animals↗
Recovery and assay of African swine fever and swine vesicular disease viruses from pig slurry.
Assaying samples for infectious virus is more difficult when the sample is toxic to cells used in the assay, e.g. with samples of infected pig slurry. Various techniques were compared for the recovery of African swine fever virus (ASFV) and swine vesicular disease virus (SVDV) in pig slurry. Extraction with Freon led to 80-100% recovery of SVDV added to pig slurry. The assay sensitivity enabled undiluted, centrifuged sample to be put directly onto monolayers of IB-RS2 cells, allowing a minimum detection level of 100.7 pfu ml-1. ASFV was difficult to recover intact, and the best technique allowed a recovery of 60% with a minimum detectable level of 101.8 HAD50 ml-1, due to toxicity to the cells at low sample dilutions. Extraction with the addition of an equal volume of ox serum to inoculated slurry was best at recovering ASFV. Poor recoveries with the other techniques may have been due to the inactivation of the virus while in the slurry rather than as a result of the inability of the method to extract ASFV.
African Swine Fever Virus↗
Agents of the "suis-ide diseases" of swine: Actinobacillus suis, Haemophilus parasuis, and Streptococcus suis.
In recent years, Actinobacillus suis, Haemophilus parasuis, and Streptococcus suis have emerged as important pathogens of swine, particularly in high health status herds. Their association with a wide range of serious clinical conditions and has given rise to the moniker "suis-ide diseases." These organisms are early colonizers and, for that reason, are difficult to control by management procedures such as segregated early weaning. Vaccination, serodiagnostic testing, and even serotyping are complicated by the presence of multiple serotypes, cross-reactive antigens, and the absence of clear markers for virulence. In this review, we discuss our current understanding of the pathogenesis, epidemiology, and management of the causative agents of the "suis-ide diseases" of swine.
Actinobacillus Infections↗
Crystallization and preliminary X-ray analysis of swine vesicular disease virus (SVDV).
Three different crystal forms of the swine vesicular disease virus (SVDV), isolate SPA/2/'93, were obtained by the hanging-drop vapour-diffusion technique using ammonium sulfate and sodium/potassium phosphate as precipitants. Monoclinic crystals, space group C2, with unit-cell parameters a = 473.7, b = 385.3, c = 472.8 A, beta = 100.4 degrees, contain one virus pArticle in the crystal asymmetric unit and diffract to 3.0 A resolution. A second type of crystals had a cubic morphology and diffracted beyond 2.6 A resolution. These crystals belong to a primitive orthorhombic space group, with unit-cell parameters a = 319.6, b = 353.8, c = 377.7 A, and contain half a virus pArticle in the asymmetric unit. A third type of crystals, with a prismatic shape and belonging to space group I222, was also obtained under similar crystallization conditions. These latter crystals, with unit-cell parameters a = 318.3, b = 349.9, c = 371.7 A, diffract to at least 3.0 A resolution and contain 15 protomers per asymmetric unit; this requires that three perpendicular crystal twofold axes coincide with three of the viral pArticles' dyad axes.
Ammonium Sulfate↗
The persistence of swine vesicular disease virus infection in pigs.
Two groups of pigs were infected with a recent Italian isolate of swine vesicular disease virus (SVDV). Blood, nasal swabs and faeces were collected for up to 6 months after exposure to infection and animals were killed at regular intervals to obtain tissues post-mortem. These samples were examined for virus by conventional means and for viral RNA (vRNA) by reverse transcription-nested polymerase chain reaction (RT-nPCR). Virus was identified intermittently from both clinically and subclinically infected animals in nasal swabs, faeces and tonsillar tissue by either virus isolation or RT-nPCR up to 63 days post infection (dpi). Between 63 and 119 dpi virus was not detected in the secretions, excretions or tissues of any pigs. Following mixing of the two groups of animals at 119 dpi, SVDV was again identified in faeces for up to 7 days suggesting that the stress of mixing reactivated the excretion of virus in pigs from which the agent could no longer be identified. Minor antigenic changes were identified between the parental virus and isolates recovered late in the course of infection. Altered antigenicity corresponded with deduced amino acid substitutions identified from differences in nucleotide sequence between early and late isolates. This investigation demonstrates that SVDV and vRNA can be present in pigs for considerably longer after exposure to infection than has previously been recognized and provides preliminary evidence for a carrier state in swine vesicular disease.
Amino Acid Substitution↗