Aggression and the concept of aim in psychoanalytic drive theory.
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Aggression↗
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Results for “PSYCHOANALYTIC INTERPRETATION”
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[On the so-called "latency period"].
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Humans↗
[Psychological interpretation of organic diseases and psychoanalytic speculation on the past].
By using examples of psychotherapy applications the author critically analyzes a tendency of speculative psychoanalytical explanation of organic illnesses on the basis of the patient's biography. Typical clinical pictures are described. Probable causes of this tendency of speculation in a psychoanalytical manner are discussed. The author also refers to the tradition of speculative theories in psychoanalysis, the meaning of behavorism for psychoanalysis as well as the denial of hereditary-genetic factors. The imponderableness of the causal meaning of biographical events is demonstrated. Impulses for training are given.
Asthma↗
Changes in psychoanalytic ideas: transference interpretation.
Interpretation of the transference is central to all psychoanalytic models. Definitions of transference and transference interpretation have changed greatly during the past half-century, influenced by major movements in philosophy, advances in psychoanalytic research and theory, and changes in our understanding of Freud. This paper suggests that historical, relatively simple, concepts of the transference as the reproduction in the present of significant relationships from the past do not adequately meet current clinical and theoretical demands. Modernist views of the transference emphasize as additional sources of transference responses, the role of the analytic background of safety, the constant modification of unconscious fantasy and internal representations, and the interactive nature of transference responses, with important interpersonal and intersubjective components. It is suggested that the evolving modernist views of transference and transference interpretation permit a fuller accounting for transference phenomena and open the way for better informed interventions. A brief discussion of the issue of psychological "truth" and "distortion" as applied to transference phenomena is presented. The themes are illustrated with clinical vignettes.
Fantasy↗
[Historicity and the epistemological condition of psychoanalysis: filiation and orthopraxis].
The very particular epistemological condition of psychoanalysis (that of a "psychology" closely tied to "metapsychology") is well evidenced in the genesis and historical development of this "new science"; so intrinsically tied to Freud's personality that it requires a personal and guaranteed transmission: a "filiation". Indeed, from this epistemological situation, as well as from the clinical character of psychoanalytical interpretation, was been the deontological necessity for a societal institution that attests to the orthodoxy of psychoanalytical praxis: an "ortho-praxis". This yields a body of problems specific to the scientific historiography of psychoanalysis, to the extent that the diversity of heuristic conditions of historians, whether psychoanalysts or non-psychoanalysts, although effective, does not always ensure a privilege or natural advantage. The epistemological analysis of such a body of problems--starting from the notions of "chronicle" and "history" in general--lead, nonetheless, to the exclusion of relativism and historiographic solipsism.
Historiography↗
[Place of psychoanalysis in a day hospital for psychotic little children].
The authors try to draw conclusions from Winnicot's articles on the discontinous nature of emotional development. They try to understand how autism may originate in disruptions of self-non-self" attachments. However, they admit that the child's personality may develop even within such disruptions. In an experiment of intensive care in a day-hospital for autistic or psychotic children they have tried to restore these attachments in the hospital itself, through continuous care by each member of the staff, regardless of qualification or training. This continuity provides a basis for relationships which may be voiced and interpreted during the children's therapy as they share this reference experience. Its continuity makes life in the institution therapeutic in itself, even without psychoanalytic interpretations. The lack of spoken language gives rise to communication difficulties and use of an educated self is a current project. Two clinical observations exemplify the parallel work of parents and children and their reciprocal interactions. As the origin and future of these psychoses are still open questions, the possible responsibility of predisposing or initial fragilizing factors which facilitate this lasting personality organization is to be considered.
Autistic Disorder↗
[Suicide in the Bible from the current psychodynamic viewpoint. "There Saul took a sword and fell upon it"].
After a short introduction to psychoanalytical interpretation of literature in general and in the Bible, the stories of Samson and King Saul are examined on the basis of modern psychoanalytical aspects of suicidology (narcissistic theory, object relation theory, self psychology). Samson's beginning is hallmarked by the uncertainty of his parents, their megalomanic fantasies which are projected on the child. His relationships are characterized by violent emotions, intensive conflicts on intimacy and distance and also raging anger at insults and privation. In his suicide he fuses himself with the highly ambivalent primary object and destroys it at the same time he destroys himself. People with narcissistic personality are considered to be extremely suicidal especially in combination with the destructive potency of narcissistic anger.
Bible↗
[Perception, interpretation and recognition. Scientific-theoretical, psychoanalytical and anthropological comments on the process of recognition].
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Adult↗
New interpretative styles: progress or contamination?: psychoanalysis and phenomenological psychopathology.
Psychoanalysis has started to recoup, often quite implicitly, a more phenomenological stance, ever since psychoanalysts have started working with borderline and psychotic patients. As many of these patients have commonly been through traumatic experiences, psychoanalysts have been using an approach that questions the role of traditional psychoanalytical interpretation and pays more attention to the patient's inner conscious experiences; this approach is characteristic of a specific form of contemporary psychiatry: phenomenological psychopathology, founded by Karl Jaspers in 1913 and developed into a form of psychotherapy by Ludwig Binswanger, with his Daseinsanalyse. If what we could call a phenomenological 'temptation' has been spreading over psychoanalysis, so too has a psychoanalytical 'temptation' always been present in phenomenological psychopathology. In fact, even though this branch of psychiatry has led us towards a deeper understanding of the characteristics of psychotic being-in-the-world, its therapeutic applications have never been adequately formalised, much less have they evolved into a specific technique or a structured psychotherapeutic approach. Likewise, phenomenological psychotherapy has always held an anaclitic attitude towards psychoanalysis, accepting its procedures but refusing its theoretical basis because it is too close to that of the objectifying natural sciences. Psychoanalytic 'temptation' and phenomenological 'temptation' can thus be considered as two sides of the same coin and outline a trend in psychoanalytic and phenomenological literature which points out the fundamental role of the patient's inner conscious experiences in the treatment of borderline and psychotic patients.
Humans↗
Early object relations into new objects.
Two strands of change are suggested by this review, one maturational, the other therapeutic or developmental (Hartmann and Kris, 1945). By "maturational" I mean to suggest energies that infuse the individual from earliest life in a manner that includes object relations, but for the healthy exercise of which object relations per se need not be of central and crucial importance. Within wide limits such energies may be delayed until growth conditions prevail without significant distortion of certain of the organism's ego functions. Therapeutic change is analogous to developmental change in that both involve the crucial presence of another to release energies. In therapeutic change these are energies that have been repressed beyond the reach of developmental dynamics. In everyday development crisis and synthesis alternate in conjunction with new and emerging objects to add to the psychological structures brought to the fore by maturation. In many instances, as we see with John, over time and in a less focussed manner, developmental changes can approximate therapeutic change and visa versa. Freud-Dann in their "experiment" pursued one line, in which the equipmental delay brought on by extremely adverse living circumstances was redressed by providing an interpersonally enriching, loving, developmentally facilitating milieu. The sketches of individual children and John's subsequent story provide a perspective into what becomes the stuff of growth and what remains the stuff of neurosis. The developmental reserves and ego resilience of these children were impressive but probably not extraordinary. Usual growth ensued as soon as they were provided with the rich soil of Bulldogs Bank instead of the desert sand of the Tereszin concentration camp. However, no one can escape such adverse circumstances without having taken in the stuff of neurosis. Affects and percepts that were not assimilatable or even available to consciousness at the time remain buried in the unconscious. Pain deprived of meaning is buried as neurosis. As we see in John's story, experience that cannot be integrated at the time is locked away from whatever developmental progression has occurred. Intolerable affects and ideas require particular circumstances of object relation and verbalization such as are found in the context of psychoanalysis and arrived at through psychoanalytic interpretation. Or, as in John's case, they may give way only slowly and irregularly over long stretches of time, when subjected to life experiences in the company of new object relations. Broadly stated, the Freud-Dann paper helps us to appreciate that there are several pathways of protection and growth in the ego that involve the discovery or construction of new objects. Family-romance fantasies are a common manifestation of new-object phenomena. Transitional object phenomena are also related. For some individuals at a particular time or over a span of time, providing the right circumstances for the resumption of maturational and developmental growth is all it takes to make them whole. Changes in the adaptive ego are sufficient to alleviate the conflicts stemming from the neurotic ego. For others, depending upon the degree of their neurotic impairment, or for the same individual under other circumstances, therapeutic change in the deepest sense demands the relatively unconditional presence of the interactive and interpreting other. Children of the storm who come in for shelter and warmth may thrive, but they also require a means of getting at the storm in their core that has been internalized as part of the ego's survival mechanism. What can be extracted from the poignant story of the Bulldogs Bank children about current child-analytic technique? The psychoanalytic piano now may be more formally conceptualized as having white as well as black keys. Most analyses, adult and child, have been conducted as though the "black keys"--pressure to mastery through repetition and its subsequent interpretation in relation to the transference--were the sole agents of therapeutic change. Reviewing maturation and development in relation to the resumption of psychological growth suggests that the provision of a beneficient environment, the "white keys," may lead to the resumption of maturational growth and change. The difference between the two modalities would be in the relative need for a significant other to bring about such change. Expanding on Hartmann and Kris, we can say that maturation requires a certain level of human stimulation and a supportive environment to unfold. At times in our work we encounter a psychoanalysis of and about maturation rather than primarily transference and interpretation. By and large the structure and functions of the ego that have been impeded in their exercise by traumatic circumstances in the environment are reactivated by a generalized holding environment rather than a relationship. In the practice of psychoanalysis this means that the child analyst may be more relaxed about the nonverbal play and relational aspects of the work; he need not fear that dynamics not captured in secondary process are lost to change. To the extent that the analysis provides an opportunity for maturational expression, growth will occur. When growth has been impeded by direct and significant interpersonal factors, the standard interpretative clarifications of defense, drive, and object relations in the context of removing the transference distortions regarding the analyst (and the world) are essential for recovery. Where the sequence of repetition through practice to mastery has become frozen by thwarting and stunting relationships, these potentially dead-end examples of neurotic object constancy must be played out on the "black keys." The amalgamation of the black of transference developments and the white of maturational emergence is paradigmatic for the discovery of new objects and new senses of self. In everyday life and analysis, maturation may lead to dramatic change that has hitherto been poorly identified and conceptualized. In child analysis, play is the medium for picking the lock of both arrested maturation and stultified development. Realizing that should permit the child analyst to engage more freely with the child in their own style of play without being overly concerned about the presence or absence of relational dynamic material. Non-dynamic play may not usually be defensive play, though it has often been misinterpreted as such. It may represent activity supporting renewed maturation--practice play in the service of memory, motility, or small or large motor function rather than in the service of the playful, repetitive externalization of threatening introjects. Dynamic play highlights the stagnant or emerging functions of the ego with regard to defense and affect management, which may then be interpreted using the play as key or using words as key to unlock the troubled relationship that is being dramatized. The analyst remains in a non-defensive stance, assigned by the analysand as audience or benign participant. Similarly, in adult analyses some individuals come pre-programmed not so much for interpretation as to discover the analyst as new object. They are in search of near psychobiological maturational closure on an object, already constituted in fantasy, that is respectful, attentive, objective, interested, and sometimes enlightening in their attempts at analytic understanding and developmental homeostasis. This phenomenon is akin to love at first sight, though without the flagrant libidinal romantic element. It occurs as the analytic narrative unfolds and the patient comes to a new sense of self, often around some developmental role or mix of roles, such as spouse, lover, mother, student, sibling, or worker. The point is that playing on the black and white keys of development and maturation leads to the appreciation of a psychoanalytic instrument that is at once more complex and yet easier to get music out of. And development continues from early objects to new objects. New and renewed understandings of analytic events necessarily guide the analyst in the timing of his traditional activities of attending, listening, talking, and relating. A contemporary surge of clinical understanding has led to a more active and informed relatedness on the part of the analyst that allows for a more compassionate approach to verbalization, whether with adults or children. We now know that not every word and every dynamic needs to be funneled through interpretation. The spontaneous powers for recovery that are stimulated by the analytic ground and the analytic process may come to be more accepted as a component of therapeutic gain. Appreciation of the balance of power between the verbal and nonverbal aspects of the analytic process in bringing about therapeutic change has increased. This has led to a greater parity of power and responsibility in the therapeutic alliance. The idea of a "tilted partnership" in which both members work for or against the powerful forces of the analytic process, or of a reciprocal relationship between analyst and analysand has become available to replace the former emphasis on the "tilted relationship." The analyst need no longer be so much in charge of the proceedings whether through deep interpretations of the unconscious or by obsessive attention to associational detail. The ongoing process of developing a body of theoretical and technical understanding that is both reliable and plastic demands an openness that at times flies in the face of the imperative needs of our patients and our profession for clinical confidence and certainty. The analytic clinician, part artist and part scientist, is forever struggling to balance the interminable task of culling new understanding from experience while imposing previously derived understandings that while sure are yet subject to changes stimulated by analytic experience. (ABSTRACT TRUNCATED)
Child↗
My life in testing.
This autobiographical essay describes my career as a psychodiagnostician, which began at the City College of New York in 1941 and ended in the late 1970s when I became a full-time psychoanalyst in Manhattan. As a green, 20-year-old psychology undergraduate, I was picked by Gardner Murphy to assist David Rapaport at the Menninger Clinic in Topeka, Kansas, who was developing new methods for using psychological tests to diagnose and treat soldiers during World War II. Our findings were presented in the classic, two volume work, Diagnostic Psychological Testing, published in 1945-1946 (Rapaport, Gill, & Schafer, 1945-1946; 1968), to which I added two clinically enriched monographs: The Clinical Application of Psychological Tests, published in 1948 (Schafer, 1948/1995), and Psychoanalytic Interpretation in Rorschach Testing (Schafer, 1954), published in 1954. After the Menninger Clinic, I continued to hone my assessment expertise at the Austen Riggs Center and Yale University, but I also sought opportunities to develop psychotherapy skills. I completed psychoanalytic training in 1960 at the Western New England Institute for Psychoanalysis and thereafter sought positions that would offer more time for treating patients. A notable highpoint in my testing career was assessing Jack Ruby, killer of Lee Harvey Oswald. I look back fondly at my years as an assessment psychologist, which produced nearly 4 decades of great memories.
Forensic Psychiatry↗
From "Anna O." to Bertha Pappenheim: transforming private pain into public action.
Bertha Pappenheim ("Anna O,") was treated for hysteria by Josef Breuer when she was a young adult. As a mature adult she became a leading social worker, writer, and feminist activist in the German Jewish community. This article examines her therapy with Breuer, her own struggle for recovery, and some links between her earlier and later life, in particular the lack of intimate relationships in her life and her work against the victimization of women. Throughout the article psychoanalytic interpretations, social history, and feminist analyses are integrated to provide a contextualized examination of Pappenheim's life.
Austria↗
Parameters and the analytic process: a contribution to the theory of the "mature transference".
This case presentation deals with a patient whose preoedipally and oedipally determined deficit in directing libido and aggression toward the world, and resulting resistance to the analytic process, required the use of a "reducible" parameter designed to help him harness libido and aggression in the service of intellectual interest. The peculiar conformation of the patient's Oedipus complex, superimposed on a developmental deficit, led to profound resistance to genetic oedipal and preoedipal interpretations of the paternal and maternal transferences, respectively. The resistance took the form of an avowed lack of intellectual interest in the analytic work which paralleled his lack of interest both in his career and in his interpersonal relationships. The use of a technical parameter involving the provision of advice on an issue of pressing concern and a subsequent "preinterpretive enactment" dealing with the nature of psychoanalytic interpretation were instrumental in securing a "mature transference" (Stone, 1961) and in controlling the resistance-based regression. Via the instrumentality of the parameter, the case provides a concrete exemplification of Kanzer's (1975, p. 49) claim that "even the patient's antagonism toward therapy. . . may play a constructive part in the treatment."
Adult↗
Freud and sexual reorientation therapy.
Contrary to certain psychoanalytic interpretations, Freud himself generally resisted the possibility or desirability of sexual reorientation therapy. Yet his understanding of the origins and nature of homoeroticism does not suggest that conversion therapy is impossible. Although he did not believe homoeroticism to be an inherent impediment to human accomplishment and fulfillment neither did he see it as having the full value of heteroeroticism. For these reasons he did not altogether rule out the desirability or possibility of conversion therapy for some individuals even if he did not believe that it could be psychoanalysis alone that could redirect sexual orientation.
Female↗
[Remembering in the transference--on the interdisciplinary dialogue between psychoanalysis and biological memory research].
The interdisciplinary dialogue between psychoanalysis and other sientific disciplines, e.g. the biological memory research, is seen as one possibility of aiming at obtaining external coherence (Carlo Strenger, 1991) of psychoanalytic interpretations and concepts. Looking at a sequence from a psychoanalysis with a Borderline patients the author discusses that memory processes can only occur in a new interaction with a "meaningful other" (in the transference relationship): the situative, constructive and empathetic interaction in a new objectrelationship is a presupposition for recalling memories of traumatic infantile experiences. Memory processes are dependent on an inner and/or a real dialogue with a human object, on interaction, on a complex sensorimotoraffective and cognitive experience in and between two persons. Such an understanding of memory contradicts a conceptualization of a "replicative memory" which--according to a metaphor of human mind compared with a computer--stores and evokes information in a static manner. Opposite to this conceptualization G. E. Edelman and others postulate a "dynamic memory", that is part of a living system constantly changing and interacting with environment. The author discusses that this view of memory corresponds well with the clinical findings in psychoanalysis of the last years, that changes in behaviour cannot be attained only by recovering repressed infantile traumata but only in combination with a process of understanding, of "working through"--of recategoriazation--in the transference relationship.
Humans↗
The depressive personality. A critical review.
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Bipolar Disorder↗