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PubMed1994

Detection of Streptococcus pneumoniae DNA in blood cultures by PCR.

We have developed a PCR assay, with primers derived from the autolysin (lyt) gene, for the detection of Streptococcus pneumoniae DNA in blood cultures. The predicted fragment of 247 bp was detected in all strains of pneumococci, embracing 12 different serotypes that were tested. Although DNA extracted from four viridans streptococci spp. Streptococcus oralis, Streptococcus mitis, Streptococcus sanguis, and Streptococcus parasanguis) gave amplification products, these were quite different from the predicted fragment for S. pneumoniae. Application of the assay for diagnosis of septicemia caused by S. pneumoniae showed concordance between PCR and culture results. However, on four occasions PCR was positive in supernatants from both paired culture bottles while pneumococci were cultured from only one. Performing PCR on negative cultures in controlled studies such as vaccine trials may provide a sensitive tool for increasing case detection.

Base Sequence↗

PubMed2002

groESL sequence determination, phylogenetic analysis, and species differentiation for viridans group streptococci.

The full-length sequences of the groESL genes (also known as cpn10/60) of Streptococcus anginosus, Streptococcus constellatus, Streptococcus gordonii, and Streptococcus sanguis and the near full-length sequence of the groESL genes of Streptococcus intermedius, Streptococcus bovis, Streptococcus mitis, Streptococcus mutans, Streptococcus oralis, and Streptococcus salivarius were determined. The lengths of the groES genes from the 10 species listed above ranged from 282 to 288 bp, and the full-length sequences of groEL determined for 4 species (S. anginosus, S. constellatus, S. gordonii, and S. sanguis) revealed that each was 1,623 bp. The intergenic region (spacer) between the groES and groEL genes varies in size (15 to 111 bp) and sequence between species. The variation of the groES sequences among the species tested was greater (62.1 to 95.1% nucleotide sequence identities) than that of the groEL sequences (77.2 to 95.2% nucleotide sequence identities). Phylogenetic analysis of the groES and groEL genes yielded evolutionary trees similar to the tree constructed by use of the 16S rRNA gene. The intraspecies variation of the spacer was minimal for clinical isolates of some species. The groESL sequence data provide an additional parameter for identification of viridans group streptococcal species.

Bacterial Proteins↗

PubMed2005

Microbial risk indicators of early childhood caries.

The aim of this study was to use molecular identification methods, such as 16S RNA gene sequence and reverse-capture checkerboard hybridization, for identification of the bacteria associated with dental caries and with dental health in a subset of 204 twins aged 1.5 to 7 years old. A total of 448 plaque samples (118 collected from caries-free subjects and 330 from caries-active subjects) were used for analysis. We compared the bacteria found in biofilms of children exhibiting severe dental caries, with different degrees of lesion severity, with those found in biofilms of caries-free children. A panel of 82 bacterial species was selected, and a PCR-based reverse-capture checkerboard method was used for detection. A simple univariate test was used to determine the overabundance and underabundance of bacterial species in the diseased and in the healthy groups. Features identified with this univariate test were used to construct a probabilistic disease prediction model. Furthermore, a method for the analysis of global patterns of gene expression was performed to permit simultaneous analysis of the abundance of significant species by allowing cross-bacterial comparisons of abundance profiles between caries-active and caries-free subjects. Our results suggested that global patterns of microbial abundance in this population are very distinctive. The top bacterial species found to be overabundant in the caries-active group were Actinomyces sp. strain B19SC, Streptococcus mutans, and Lactobacillus spp., which exhibited an inverse relationship to beneficial bacterial species, such as Streptococcus parasanguinis, Abiotrophia defectiva, Streptococcus mitis, Streptococcus oralis, and Streptococcus sanguinis.

Child↗

PubMed1982

Inhibition of neutrophil chemotaxis by soluble bacterial products.

BACTERIAL-NEUTROPHIL INTERACTIONS may be critical determinants of virulence in periodontal diseases. This study was undertaken to examine the ability of major bacterial species from the human oral cavity to inhibit (1) peripheral blood neutrophil chemotaxis, (2) chemotactic formylmethionyl peptide binding, and (3) phagocytosis. Included were cultured supernatants and sonic extracts obtained from strains of Capnocytophaga, Bacteroides gingivalis, Fusobacterium nucleatum, Bacteroides asaccharolyticus, Capnocytophaga species, Actinobacillus actinomycetemcomitans, Neisseria, Actinomyces viscosus, Bacterionema matruchotii, Streptococcus mitis, Streptococcus mutans, and Streptococcus sanguis. Chemotaxis was measured using Boyden chambers; phagocytosis was determined using Staphylococcus aureus as the indicator organism and radioactive chemotactic peptide binding was assessed by a rapid filtration assay. None of the test organisms were cytotoxic to neutrophils or inhibited neutrophil phagocytosis. Capnocytophaga species., Bacteroides species., A. actinomycetemcomitans, and F. nucleatum produced factors which specifically inhibited neutrophil chemotaxis. Activity was lost after dialysis. Extracts of Bacteroides species, A. actinomycetemcomitans and F. nucleatum, which were not chemotactic by themselves, inhibited binding of chemotactic peptide suggesting that in vitro chemotaxis inhibition was mediated by nonchemotactic components that compete for the chemotactic factor receptor on the neutrophil. The exception was Capnocytophaga which appeared to inhibit chemotaxis by inhibition of a post-binding event. Such chemotactic inhibitors from periodontopathic organisms that inhibit neutrophil function may be important determinants of virulence.

Bacteria↗

PubMed1981

Viability of six species of normal oropharyngeal bacteria after exposure to cigarette smoke in vitro.

Bacteria in culture medium at 37 degrees C were subjected to eight puffs of smoke from one cigarette, and viable cell counts were done at intervals ranging from 0 min to 3 h after exposure to smoke. The cigarette contained 23.0 mg of tar and 1.4 mg of nicotine. Each 25.0 ml puff of smoke from a mechanical smoking apparatus was passed over a 1.0 ml suspension of bacteria dispersed over a 25 cm2 surface in a sterile flask. Filtered air was in contact with the suspension between puffs, and during the intervals between smoke treatment and viable cell counts being done. There was a marked decrease in numbers of viable Branhamella catarrhalis at 15 min after exposure to smoke, and by 1 h there were no viable cells in suspensions which originally contained 10(7) bacteria. No reduction in the number of viable Branhamella catarrhalis occurred in an untreated suspension of the micro-organism. There was a marked decrease in viable Neisseria perflava at 30 min, and by 3 h there were no viable cells. There was a 4 to 5 log10 reduction of viable Neisseria sicca compared with untreated bacteria at 3 h after exposure to smoke. Streptococcus mitis, Streptococcus salivarius, and Streptococcus sanguis were less susceptible to the harmful action of cigarette smoke, and by 3 h there were 1 to 2 log10 differences in viable cell counts between smoke-treated and untreated bacteria. Non-filter cigarette smoke had a greater detrimental effect on all species of bacteria studied than smoke from filter-tipped cigarettes.

Bacteria↗

PubMed1999

Extensive variation in the ddl gene of penicillin-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae results from a hitchhiking effect driven by the penicillin-binding protein 2b gene.

An internal fragment of the ddl gene, encoding the cytoplasmic enzyme D-alanyl-D-alanine ligase, was sequenced from 566 isolates of Streptococcus pneumoniae and single isolates of Streptococcus mitis and Streptococcus oralis. The 52 alleles found among the S. pneumoniae isolates fell into two groups. Group A alleles were very uniform in sequence and were present in both penicillin-susceptible and penicillin-resistant pneumococci. Group B alleles were much more diverse and were found only in penicillin-resistant isolates. The Streptococcus oralis and Streptococcus mitis alleles were less diverged from group A alleles than some of the group B pneumococcal alleles, suggesting that the latter alleles contain interspecies recombinational replacements. The ddl gene was located 783 bp downstream of the penicillin-binding protein 2b gene (pbp2b). Sequencing of the pbp2b-recR-ddl-murF region of three penicillin-resistant pneumococci that had diverged ddl alleles showed that the whole region from pbp2b to ddl (or beyond) was highly diverged (about 8%) compared with the sequences from three penicillin-susceptible isolates. The high levels of diversity in the group B ddl alleles from penicillin-resistant isolates were ascribed to a hitchhiking effect whereby interspecies recombinational exchanges at pbp2b, selected by penicillin usage, often extend into, or through, the ddl gene. The data allow the average size of the interspecies recombinational replacements to be estimated at about 6 kb.

Alleles↗

PubMed2003

Susceptibility of oral bacteria to Melaleuca alternifolia (tea tree) oil in vitro.

The in vitro activity of Melaleuca alternifolia (tea tree) oil against 161 isolates of oral bacteria from 15 genera was determined. Minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentrations (MBC) ranged from 0.003 to 2.0% (v/v). MIC90 values were 1.0% (v/v) for Actinomyces spp., Lactobacillus spp., Streptococcus mitis and Streptococcus sanguis, and 0.1% (v/v) for Prevotella spp. Isolates of Porphyromonas, Prevotella and Veillonella had the lowest MICs and MBCs, and isolates of Streptococcus, Fusobacterium and Lactobacillus had the highest. Time kill studies with Streptococcus mutans and Lactobacillus rhamnosus showed that treatment with > or = 0.5% tea tree oil caused decreases in viability of >3 log colony forming units/ml after only 30 s, and viable organisms were not detected after 5 min. These studies indicate that a range of oral bacteria are susceptible to tea tree oil, suggesting that tea tree oil may be of use in oral healthcare products and in the maintenance of oral hygiene.

Actinomyces↗

PubMed2001

Mannosidase production by viridans group streptococci.

The production of mannosidase activity by all currently recognized species of human viridans group streptococci was determined using an assay in which bacterial growth was dependent on the degradation of the high-mannose-type glycans of RNase B and subsequent utilization of released mannose. RNase B is an excellent substrate for the demonstration of mannosidase activity since it is a glycoprotein with a single glycosylation site which is occupied by high-mannose-type glycoforms containing five to nine mannose residues. Mannosidase activity was produced only by some members of the mitis group (Streptococcus mitis, Streptococcus oralis, Streptococcus gordonii, Streptococcus cristatus, Streptococcus infantis, Streptococcus parasanguinis, and Streptococcus pneumoniae) and Streptococcus intermedius of the anginosus group. None of the other species within the salivarius and mutans groups or Streptococcus peroris and Streptococcus sanguinis produced mannosidase activity. Using matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry, it was demonstrated that the Man(5) glycan alone was degraded while Man(6) to Man(9), which contain terminal alpha(1-->2) mannose residues in addition to the alpha(1-->3), alpha(1-->6), and beta(1-->4) residues present in Man(5), remained intact. Investigations on mannosidase production using synthetic (4-methylumbelliferone- or p-nitrophenol-linked) alpha- or beta-mannosides as substrates indicated that there was no correlation between degradation of these substrates and degradation of the Man(5) glycan of RNase B. No species degraded these alpha-linked mannosides, while degradation of the beta-linked synthetic substrates was restricted to strains within the Streptococcus anginosus, S. gordonii, and S. intermedius species. The data generated using a native glycoprotein as the substrate demonstrate that mannosidase production within the viridans group streptococci is more widely distributed than had previously been considered.

Culture Media↗

PubMed1999

Dominant cross-reactive antibodies generated during the response to a variety of oral bacterial species detect phosphorylcholine.

The intraperitoneal immunization of Balb/c mice with subgingival plaque from advanced periodontal pockets or with certain strains of Actinobacillus actinomycetemcomitans, Fusobacterium nucleatum, Actinomyces israelii, Streptococcus mitis, or Streptococcus oralis yielded frequently indistinguishable IgM monoclonal antibodies which were reactive with antigens from a variety of oral bacteria. This study aimed to characterize the specificity of such monoclonal antibodies and the diversity of oral bacteria expressing this target antigen or epitope. Using a competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay to study a variety of competitor substances for their capacity to bind to the monoclonal antibodies, we identified phosphorylcholine as the recognized epitope. The concentration of positive bacteria with extraordinarily bright cell wall fluorescence in indirect immunofluorescence assays varied between 0.1% and 15% in subgingival and from 10 to 40% in supragingival plaque samples. Labeled bacteria belonged to different morphotypes, including cocci, rods, and filaments. Of 75 species tested in vitro, 14 gram-positive and four gram-negative species were found to harbor positive strains. Haemophilus aphrophilus, Streptococcus mitis, Actinomyces georgiae, Actinomyces gerencseriae, Actinomyces israelii, and Actinomyces odontolyticus were human oral species of which all tested strains were capable of binding the cross-reactive monoclonal antibodies. In contrast, Actinomyces naeslundii was consistently negative. These data provide evidence for a much more common expression of phosphorylcholine by oral bacteria than hitherto believed but do not indicate an obvious association of phosphorylcholine expression with oral health or inflammatory periodontal diseases.

Actinomyces↗

PubMed2006

Detection of Streptococcus species by polymerase chain reaction in infectious crystalline keratopathy.

PURPOSE: Investigation of a positive polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for Streptococcus species from an excised cornea of a patient with infectious crystalline keratopathy. METHODS: Samples microdissected from corneal intrastromal aggregates present in infectious crystalline keratopathy were subjected to PCR for 3 primer pairs respectively specific for Streptococcus, Staphylococcus, and several kinds of fungi. RESULTS: The PCR detected DNA from Streptococcus but not from Staphylococcus or fungi. Direct sequencing of the PCR products showed that the PCR products had the highest identity (99.8%) with Streptococcus mitis and Streptococcus gordoni, indicating that these species were the most probable causes of infectious crystalline keratopathy in this patient. CONCLUSION: Our findings suggest that PCR provides a good adjunct technique in the diagnosis of corneal infection.

Aged↗

PubMed1973

A peroxidase-mediated, streptococcus mitis-dependent antimicrobial system in saliva.

H(2)O(2) formation by Streptococcus mitis was measured by the catalase-dependent conversion of [(14)C]formate to (14)CO(2) ; it was optimal at pH 6.0-6.5 and required glucose. The H(2)O(2) formed by S. mitis could be employed as a component of an antimicrobial system that also included lactoperoxidase (LPO) and either iodide or thiocyanate ions in the concentrations present in saliva. The antimicrobial effect of the LPO-iodide-S. mitis system was measured by the decrease in the viable cell count of the target organisms (Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Candida tropicalis). The antimicrobial effect of the LPO-thiocyanate-S. mitis system was measured by the decrease in the rate of growth or the rate of uptake of [(14)C]valine by the target organisms (E. coli, S. aureus). Mixed or parotid saliva could replace LPO and thiocyanate ions in the S. mitis-dependent inhibition of bacterial growth and valine uptake. The presence in saliva of a peroxidase-mediated, antimicrobial system dependent on microbial metabolism for H(2)O(2) and its role as a natural host defense mechanism are considered.

Catalase↗

PubMed1997

Occurrence of lipoteichoic acid in oral streptococci.

The heterogeneous bacterial group known as oral streptococci was screened for the presence of cellular polyglycerolphosphate-containing lipoteichoic acid. This compound was detected in phenol extracts of lyophilized cells by an immunoassay in which polyglycerolphosphate-specific monoclonal antibody was used. Polyglycerolphosphate-containing lipoteichoic acid occurred in all 86 strains of oral streptococci examined except the Streptococcus mitis and Streptococcus oralis strains. This confirms the findings of Rosan (B. Rosan, Science 201:918-920, 1978) and Hamada et al. (S. Hamada, J. Mizuno, S. Kotani, and M. Torii, FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 8:93-96, 1980), is consistent with the results of the taxonomic study of oral streptococci performed by Kilian et al. (M. Kilian, L. Mikkelsen, and J. Henrichsen, Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol. 39:471-484, 1989), who emended the descriptions of Streptococcus sanguis, S. oralis, and S. mitis, and reflects the phylogenetic relationship among S. mitis, S. oralis, and Streptococcus pneumoniae.

Antibodies, Monoclonal↗

PubMed2005

Loop-mediated isothermal amplification method targeting the lytA gene for detection of Streptococcus pneumoniae.

It is difficult to separate Streptococcus pneumoniae from the genotypically similar species Streptococcus mitis and Streptococcus oralis, which are commensals of the human oral cavity. A novel nucleic acid amplification technique, loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP), which amplifies DNA under isothermal conditions (63 degrees C) with high specificity, efficiency, and rapidity, was examined regarding its applicability for detecting S. pneumoniae. An S. pneumoniae-specific LAMP primer targeting the lytA gene was designed. The primer specificity was validated using 10 Streptococcus and 7 non-Streptococcus species. Within 60 min, the assay could detect 10 or more copies of purified S. pneumoniae DNA with a sensitivity 1,000 times that of conventional PCR. Clinical isolates of 21 other strains (3 S. oralis, 17 S. mitis, and 1 Streptococcus species) that harbor virulence-factor-encoding genes (lytA or ply) were tried to differentiate S. pneumoniae. The detection of S. pneumoniae in clinical isolates was more selective using the LAMP method than using conventional PCR. Therefore, LAMP appears to be a sensitive and reliable means of diagnosing S. pneumoniae infection.

Bacterial Typing Techniques↗

PubMed1981

Evaluation of blood culture media for isolation of pyridoxal-dependent Streptococcus mitior (mitis).

Nutritional variant streptococci identified as pyridoxal-dependent Streptococcus mitior (mitis) account for 5 to 6% of streptococcal endocarditis and may be a cause of "culture-negative" endocarditis. Hence, growth of three variant strains in 11 commercial blood culture broths was compared to that in fresh heart infusion broth. For simulation of clinical specimens, culture bottles were injected with 5 ml of human blood, inoculated with approximately 500 colony-forming units (CFU) per bottle, and monitored for 7 days with Gram stains and viable counts. Only Thiol broth (Difco Laboratories, Detroit, Mich.) supported growth without blood at this low inoculum. In media containing blood, maximal growth of 10(9) CFU/ml was reached within 2 days of incubation, and heavy turbidity was consistently observed in only heart infusion broth, Thiol broth, and media supplemented with pyridoxal hydrochloride. Columbia broth (BBL Microbiology Systems, Cockeysville, Md.) with increased cysteine, thioglycollate broth, and one brain heart infusion broth produced moderate growth (1 x 10(8) to 5 x 10(8) CFU/ml), whereas Columbia broth, another brain heart infusion broth, and two brands of tryptic soy broth showed fair growth (1 x 10(7) to 4 x 10(7) CFU/ml). The poor growth (1 x 10(6) to 3 x 10(6) CFU/ml) observed in three other brands of tryptic soy broth was often not apparent macroscopically or by Gram stain. Furthermore, on growth occurred in 40% of tryptic soy broth cultures inoculated with 50 CFU. Therefore, to ensure isolation of these variant streptococci from clinical blood cultures, a medium containing thiol compounds or supplemented with pyridoxal should be used. Subcultures should be made within 2 days of incubation to blood agar enriched with pyridoxal or containing a Staphylococcus sp. streak for satellitism.

Animals↗

PubMed1980

Adherence of oral streptococci to keratinized and nonkeratinized human oral epithelial cells.

The ability of Streptococcus mutans, Streptococcus sanguis, Streptococcus mitis, and Streptococcus salivarius to adhere to keratinized versus nonkeratinized human oral epithelial cells was compared. S. mitis and S. salivarius exhibited significantly greater adherence to keratinized cells than to nonkeratinized cells. S. mutans and S. sanguis adhered equally well to either epithelial cell type. It is concluded that keratinization of epithelial cells may be a significant factor in the adherence of certain oral streptococci to the oral mucosa.

Adhesiveness↗

PubMed1998

A comprehensive genetic study of streptococcal immunoglobulin A1 proteases: evidence for recombination within and between species.

An analysis of 13 immunoglobulin A1 (IgA1) protease genes (iga) of strains of Streptococcus pneumoniae, Streptococcus oralis, Streptococcus mitis, and Streptococcus sanguis was carried out to obtain information on the structure, polymorphism, and phylogeny of this specific protease, which enables bacteria to evade functions of the predominant Ig isotype on mucosal surfaces. The analysis included cloning and sequencing of iga genes from S. oralis and S. mitis biovar 1, sequencing of an additional seven iga genes from S. sanguis biovars 1 through 4, and restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) analyses of iga genes of another 10 strains of S. mitis biovar 1 and 6 strains of S. oralis. All 13 genes sequenced had the potential of encoding proteins with molecular masses of approximately 200 kDa containing the sequence motif HEMTH and an E residue 20 amino acids downstream, which are characteristic of Zn metalloproteinases. In addition, all had a typical gram-positive cell wall anchor motif, LPNTG, which, in contrast to such motifs in other known streptococcal and staphylococcal proteins, was located in their N-terminal parts. Repeat structures showing variation in number and sequence were present in all strains and may be of relevance to the immunogenicities of the enzymes. Protease activities in cultures of the streptococcal strains were associated with species of different molecular masses ranging from 130 to 200 kDa, suggesting posttranslational processing possibly as a result of autoproteolysis at post-proline peptide bonds in the N-terminal parts of the molecules. Comparison of deduced amino acid sequences revealed a 94% similarity between S. oralis and S. mitis IgA1 proteases and a 75 to 79% similarity between IgA1 proteases of these species and those of S. pneumoniae and S. sanguis, respectively. Combined with the results of RFLP analyses using different iga gene fragments as probes, the results of nucleotide sequence comparisons provide evidence of horizontal transfer of iga gene sequences among individual strains of S. sanguis as well as among S. mitis and the two species S. pneumoniae and S. oralis. While iga genes of S. sanguis and S. oralis were highly homogeneous, the genes of S. pneumoniae and S. mitis showed extensive polymorphism reflected in different degrees of antigenic diversity.

Amino Acid Sequence↗

PubMed1988

Association of viridans group streptococci from pregnant women with bacterial vaginosis and upper genital tract infection.

The prevalence and role of viridans group streptococci in the female genital tract have not been well described. In this study of 482 pregnant women, 147 (30%) were culture positive for viridans group streptococci. Of 392 women with predominant Lactobacillus morphotypes by Gram stain (normal), 110 (28%) were colonized with viridans group streptococci, compared with 37 (41%) of 90 women with bacterial vaginosis (BV) (P = 0.02). To determine whether any species were associated with BV, 177 consecutively isolated viridans group streptococci from the vagina were identified to the species level by using the Facklam scheme. The most frequently isolated species from the vagina was Streptococcus intermedius (13%), followed by Streptococcus acidominimus (6%), Streptococcus constellatus (5%), Streptococcus sanguis II (4%), Streptococcus mitis (2%), Streptococcus salivarius (2%), Streptococcus morbillorum (2%), Streptococcus sanguis I (1%), Streptococcus mutans (0.2%), and Streptococcus uberis (0.2%) with an average of 1.2 species per woman. The distribution of the species among women with BV compared with normal women was not significantly different, with the exception of two species which were associated with BV: S. acidominimus (18% versus 3%, P less than 0.001) and S. morbillorum (6% versus 0.7%, P = 0.005). Amniotic fluid and placenta cultures yielded 54 isolates: S. sanguis II (13 isolates), S. acidominimus (9 isolates), S. intermedius (10 isolates), S. constellatus (3 isolates), S. mitis (4 isolates), S. sanguis I (4 isolates), S. morbillorum (5 isolates), S. mutans (2 isolates), S. uberis (1 isolate), mannitol-positive S. intermedius (1 isolate), and 2 isolates which were not classified. The distribution of species isolated from the upper genital tract was not a reflection of the distribution in the lower genital tract. Dextran-producing species of viridans group streptococci may have a greater pathogenic potential in the placenta than the non-dextran-producing species.

Dextrans↗

PubMed1978

Rat model of experimental endocarditis.

A simple model of infective endocarditis was produced in rats. With the aid of a guide wire, polyethylene catheters were passed into the left ventricle through the right carotid artery of Sprague-Dawley rats weighing 300 to 350 g. A volume of 1 ml of an overnight culture of Streptococcus mitis, Staphylococcus aureus, or Streptococcus faecalis was intravenously injected 1 to 2 days after catheterization. Bacterial titers of Streptococcus mitis in vegetations were about 10(4)-fold greater than in other tissues. Blood cultures were always positive after 6 h. Mortality was 19% at 1 week and 82% at 2 weeks. Catheters were pulled 24 h after infection, and vegetation titers of greater than 7.0 log10 colony-forming units per g were sustained at 5 days. In intravenously infected rats without catheters, blood and tissues were sterile after 3 to 5 days. With Staphylococcus aureus, vegetations had greater than 9.0 log10 colony-forming units and with Streptococcus faecalis 8.8 +/- 0.3 log10 colony-forming units per g at 2 days. The rat model of infective endocarditis should prove to be suitable for further pathological and therapeutic studies.

Animals↗