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PubMed2006

Exercise-induced breathing patterns of youth are related to age and intensity.

The influences of sex, age, exercise intensity, and end-tidal CO(2) on the inspiratory drive ([V(T) kg(-1)] x T(i)(-1)) and respiratory timing (T(i) x T(tot)(-1)) components of ventilation were examined in 295 youth (138 females, 157 males); similarly distributed 8-18 years of age. Ventilatory and metabolic measures were collected breath-by-breath at rest and during a slow walk (4.0 km h(-1)), fast walk (5.6 km h(-1)) and run (8.0 km h(-1)). Regression modeling for drive (age, sex, and P(ET)CO(2)) found that sex was significant (R (2) < 0.017; P < 0.05) for rest and running, but not walking. Compared to rest, drive increased by 120% for the slow walk, 217% for the fast walk and 258% for the run (P < 0.0001). Drive decreased with age (P < 0.0001): rest = 0.41 ml kg(-1) s(-1) year(-1); slow walk = 0.90 ml kg(-1) s(-1) year(-1); fast walk = 1.30 ml kg(-1) s(-1) year(-1); and run = 1.47 ml kg(-1) s(-1) year(-1). In the regression models for timing, sex provided approximately 1% of the variance during the run, but was not significant during rest or walking. Timing increased with exercise intensity by approximately 0.02 units (P < 0.001), but decreased by approximately 0.002 units year(-1) with age for all conditions (P < 0.003). Changes in drive and timing were marginally related to end-tidal CO(2) (exercise R(2) < 0.063 for all models). These results suggest that in the control of inspiratory drive and timing during exercise in youth, sex is of minor importance but there are age-related changes which are marginally associated with CO(2).

Adolescent↗
PubMed1984

Influence of diltiazem on bronchoconstriction induced by cold air breathing during exercise.

Since the calcium antagonists nifedipine and verapamil have been shown to diminish exercise induced asthma, the effect of oral diltiazem, a calcium channel blocker not previously investigated in this context, was studied. Ten patients with bronchial asthma were given 60 mg diltiazem or placebo four hours before the challenge in a double blind, randomised, crossover fashion. Exercise was performed on a cycle ergometer while the subjects were breathing cold air, resulting in a respiratory heat exchange which was similar at the two study sessions. FEV1 and specific conductance (sGaw) were recorded before and three, 10, 15, and 30 minutes after the challenge. No significant differences were found between placebo and diltiazem days in the fall of FEV1 or sGaw after exercise. Thus unlike other calcium antagonists diltiazem, in a dose of 60 mg given orally four hours before exercise, failed to protect against exercise induced asthma.

Adult↗
PubMed1995

Human tolerance and physiological responses to exercise while breathing oxygen at 2.0 ATA.

Multiple physiological functions were monitored in ten men who performed two 30-min periods of 150-W ergometer exercise during 120-min exposures to O2 at 2.0 ATA. There were no convulsions or electroencephalographic manifestations of increased excitability. Sequential measurements of peripheral visual fields, pulmonary mechanical function, mental performance, and cardiovascular function during the resting recovery after each of the two exercise periods were not detectably altered from pre-exercise control values. Pre- and post-exposure measurements of visual acuity, accommodation, pupil diameter, visual cortical activity, and retinal electrical activity also revealed no significant differences. While CNS symptoms were absent, average arterial PCO2 rose by about 5 mm Hg during both exercise periods. This finding was confirmed in six subjects who performed four 6-min periods of continuous exercise at 50, 100, 150, and 200 W while breathing O2 at 2.0 ATA. Average arterial PCO2 rose nearly linearly from 34.3 mm Hg at rest to 44.0 mm Hg at 200 W. Arterial PCO2-related increments in brain blood flow and PO2 may explain part or all of the known detrimental influence of exercise on CNS O2 tolerance.

Atmospheric Pressure↗
PubMed1996

Breathing during exercise in dogs--passive or active?

The activation patterns of the costal and crural diaphragm and transversus abdominis muscle and their relationship to esophageal pressure (Pes) changes and footplant were examined in five chronically instrumented dogs which breathed at high frequencies at rest and during exercise. In two tracheostomized dogs, measurements were made of diaphragmatic length via sonomicrometry and of airflow and were related to diaphragmatic electrical activity and Pes. Dogs exhibited either a high-frequency breathing pattern, characterized by Pes changes occurring at 2-6 Hz, or a mixed-frequency breathing pattern, characterized by low-amplitude Pes oscillations (4-6 Hz) superimposed on a slower breathing rate of 0.5-1 Hz. Regardless of the type of breathing pattern elected or of the various breathing-to-stride frequency ratios observed during exercise, decreases in Pes were always associated with phasic electromyographic activity of the costal and crural diaphragm and with phasic diaphragmatic muscle shortening. The transversus abdominis electromyographic activity coincided with an increasing Pes from peak negative values in resting dogs and exhibited both an expiratory and a locomotory modulation during exercise. Although footplant may have contributed to some airflow generation when dogs utilized the mixed-frequency pattern, these data demonstrate that the movement of air into and out of the lungs in stationary or exercising dogs requires phasic neural activation of the diaphragm and other respiratory muscles.

Animals↗
PubMed2003

Behavioral interventions in asthma. Breathing training.

Breathing exercises are frequently recommended as an adjunctive treatment for asthma. A review of the current literature found little that is systematic documenting the benefits of these techniques in asthma patients. The physiological rationale of abdominal breathing in asthma is not clear, and adverse effects have been reported in chronic obstructive states. Theoretical analysis and empirical observations suggest positive effects of pursed-lip breathing and nasal breathing but clinical evidence is lacking. Modification of breathing patterns alone does not yield any significant benefit. There is limited evidence that inspiratory muscle training and hypoventilation training can help reduce medication consumption, in particular beta-adrenergic inhaler use. Breathing exercises do not seem to have any substantial effect on parameters of basal lung function. Additional research is needed on the psychological and physiological mechanisms of individual breathing techniques in asthma, differential effects in subgroups of asthma patients, and the generalization of training effects on daily life.

Asthma↗
PubMed1984

Risk of high-altitude travel in a patient with Eisenmenger's syndrome.

We used ear oximetry in combination with maneuvers of hypoxic breathing, exercise, and hyperoxic breathing to assess the cardiopulmonary function of a patient with Eisenmenger's syndrome. The results showed that mild alveolar hypoxia decreased O2 SAT moderately, that exercise alone decreased O2 SAT markedly, and that oxygenation was improved with increased inspired oxygen fraction.

Adult↗
PubMed1983

Effects of added resistance to breathing during exercise in obstructive lung disease.

Forty-nine men performed progressive submaximal treadmill exercise to determine the cardiopulmonary and subjective response to added resistance to breathing. Twenty subjects (controls), FEV1/FVC% = 79.2 +/- 1.4 (mean +/- SEM), were compared with 19 mildly obstructed men (OB1), FEV1/FVC% = 66.9 +/- 0.5, and 10 with moderate obstruction (OB2), FEV1/FVC% = 53.7 +/- 1.9. Separate exercise trials were performed with no added resistance (NAR), R1 = 3.5 cm H2O/L/s inspiratory and 1.5 cm H2O/L/s expiratory resistance, and R2 = 5 cm HKO/L/s inspiratory and 1.5 cm H2O/L/s expiratory resistance. Analysis of cardiopulmonary parameters was made at an oxygen consumption rate of VO2 = 1.5 L/min for all 3 obstruction groups at all 3 resistances. With NAR, all 3 groups had similar respiratory rate (RR), tidal volume (VT), minute ventilation (VE), end-tidal PCO2 (PETCO2), respiratory exchange ratio (R), heart rate (HR), and mouth pressure swing (Poral). With both R1 and R2 compared with NAR, control and OB1 subjects (at VO2 = 1.5 L/min) had reduced RR, VE, and R, and increased VT and Poral (p less than 0.01 for all). Changes with added resistance for OB2 subjects were in the same directions, but were significant only for VE and with R1 for RR. Heart rate did not change; PETCO2 increased in control subjects and with R2 in OB1 subjects. Separate analysis showed that except for the smaller increase in PETCO2 in OB2 subjects, none of the changes with added resistance in the OB1 or OB2 groups were different from changes in the control group.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Adult↗
PubMed1989

Effect of incentive breathing on lung functions in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD).

The effect of incentive breathing exercise was evaluated on patients of blue-bloater variety of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) in a controlled study. The study used a device working on the principles of biofeed back for imparting breathing exercise. Exercise was given for half an hour daily for six weeks. There was significant increase in the vital capacity (VC) and reduction in air trapping in exercise group. There was remarkable improvement in subjective feeling of well being and breathlessness.

Breathing Exercises↗
PubMed2006

Evidence of ventilatory constraints in healthy exercising prepubescent children.

We assessed expiratory airflow limitation (exp FL) in 18 healthy prepubescent children (6 girls and 12 boys, 10.1 +/- 0.3 years old), and examined how it might modulate regulation of tidal volume (V(T)) during exercise. The children performed a maximal incremental exercise on a cycle ergometer, preceded and followed by pulmonary function tests. Throughout exercise, breathing flow-volume loops were plotted into the maximal flow-volume loop (MFVL) measured at rest. End-expiratory and end-inspiratory lung volumes were estimated by measuring expiratory reserve volume relative to forced vital capacity (ERV/FVC), and inspiratory reserve volume relative to forced vital capacity (IRV/FVC), respectively. The exp FL, expressed as a percentage of V(T), was defined as the part of the tidal breath meeting the boundary of the MFVL. Ten children (FL) presented an exp FL at peak exercise (range, 16-78% of V(T)), and the remaining 8 constituted a non-flow-limited group (NFL). At peak exercise, FL presented a higher IRV/FVC and lower ERV/FVC (P < 0.01) than NFL children, demonstrating two different exercise breathing patterns. These results suggest that the NFL regulated V(T) at high lung volume, avoiding exp FL, while the FL breathed at low lung volume, leading to exp FL. At peak exercise, FL presented lower values of minute ventilation (P<0.05) and oxygen uptake (P<0.05) than NFL. Nevertheless, oxygen arterial saturation and dyspnea were similar in the two groups. In conclusion, ventilatory constraints may occur in healthy prepubescent children and result in relative dynamic hyperinflation or expiratory flow limitation.

Child↗
PubMed1995

A review of the control of breathing during exercise.

During the past 100 years many experimental investigations have been carried out in an attempt to determine the control mechanisms responsible for generating the respiratory responses observed during incremental and constant-load exercise tests. As a result of these investigations a number of different and contradictory control mechanisms have been proposed to be the sole mediators of exercise hyperpnea. However, it is now becoming evident that none of the proposed mechanisms are solely responsible for eliciting the exercise respiratory response. The present-day challenge appears to be one of synthesizing the proposed mechanisms, in order to determine the role that each mechanism has in controlling ventilation during exercise. This review, which has been divided into three primary sections, has been designed to meet this challenge. The aim of the first section is to describe the changes in respiration that occur during constant-load and incremental exercise. The second section briefly introduces the reader to traditional and contemporary control mechanisms that might be responsible for eliciting at least a portion of the exercise ventilatory response during these types of exercise. The third section describes how the traditional and contemporary control mechanisms may interact in a complex fashion to produce the changes in breathing associated with constant-load exercise, and incorporates recent experimental evidence from our laboratory.

Animals↗
PubMed1979

Bicycle ergometry and gas exchange measurements in neuromuscular diseases.

Using bicycle ergometry with computerized respiratory gas exchange measurements, we compared exercise capacities in patients with various neuromuscular diseases to those in normal controls. As expected, male and female patients had significantly reduced maximum work capacities (kilopond-meters per minute per kilogram of body weight) and maximal oxygen consumptions. The oxygen cost of exercise was normal in the majority of patients, although some appeared to have abnormally high oxygen consumptions during exercise. Breathing patterns during exercise, particularly in regard to onset of hyperventilation, were similar in patients and controls.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2004

Standing with assistance of a tilt table in intensive care: a survey of Australian physiotherapy practice.

Although tilt tables are used by physiotherapists to reintroduce patients to the vertical position, no quantitative evidence is available regarding their use within intensive care units (ICUs) of Australian hospitals. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the use of tilt tables in physiotherapy management of patients in ICUs across Australia. Ninety-nine physiotherapists working in Australian public ICUs were contacted via mail and asked to complete a questionnaire regarding their use of tilt tables in practice. Reasons for the use of the tilt table, contraindications, commonly used adjuncts, monitoring, and outcome measures were also investigated. Eighty-six questionnaires were returned (87% response). The tilt table was used by 58 physiotherapists (67.4%). The most common reasons for inclusion of tilt table treatment were to: facilitate weight bearing (94.8% of those who tilt); prevent muscle contractures (86%); improve lower limb strength (81%); and increase arousal (70%). The tilt table was most frequently applied to patients with neurological conditions (63.8%) and during long-term ICU stay (43.1%). Techniques often combined with tilt table treatment included upper limb exercises (93.1%) and breathing exercises (86.2%). Standing with assistance of the tilt table is used by the majority of physiotherapists working in Australian ICUs. A moderate level of agreement is demonstrated by physiotherapists regarding indications to commence tilt table treatment and adjunct modalities combined with standing with assistance of the tilt table.

Australia↗
PubMed1996

Ventilatory sensitivity to carbon dioxide: the influence of exercise and athleticism.

Endurance training reduces the ventilatory response to a given level of work, and there is evidence that endurance athletes possess attenuated chemosensitivity at rest; but it is unclear whether attenuation persists during exercise. We compared the carbon dioxide sensitivity (S) of endurance-trained (ETG), sprint-trained (STG), and control subjects (CG), at rest and during cycle ergometry. Steady-state carbon dioxide (CO2) inhalation was employed; ventilatory parameters were measured using an ultrasonic flowmeter linked to a computer. CO2 concentrations were measured at the mouth using an infrared CO2 analyzer or mass spectrometer. Mean resting CO2 sensitivity of the ETG was significantly lower than that of the STG (P < 0.05), but not the CG (P < 0.058). S increased from rest to exercise in all endurance-trained subjects, but the responses of the STG and CG were varied. Compared to rest, mean S was significantly higher during exercise for the ETG, but not for the STG or CG. S was the same in all groups during exercise. During air breathing exercise all subjects were mildly hypercapnic. The ETG showed the greatest rise in mean alveolar PCO2, but this could not be attributed to attenuated chemosensitivity since responsiveness during exercise was identical in all three groups.

Adult↗
PubMed1989

Breathing pattern during exercise in untrained children.

Breathing pattern during exercise on a cycle ergometer was studied in 18 untrained children aged from 6 to 15 years of age (9 boys, 9 girls). Oxygen uptake, tidal volume, minute ventilation, all normalized for body weight (VO2BW, VT BW, VE BW), respiratory frequency (f), inspiratory (TI) and expiratory (TE) times, ratio TI over total duration of the respiratory cycle (TI/TTOT) and mean inspiratory flow (VT BW/TI) were measured: (1) at rest (W0) and at the highest load (maximal cardiac rate) of an incremental exercise (W1); (2) in steady state conditions, at 50% of W1 (W1/2) and at 2/3 of W1 (W2/3). VO2BW, VT BW, VE BW, TI/TTOT, VT BW/TI increased significantly (P less than 0.01) from W0 to W1. Behaviour of f and TI were different from the latter parameters: f increased and TI decreased significantly from W0 to W1/2 (P less than 0.01) and from W1/2 to W2/3 (P less than 0.01) but remained similar at W2/3 and W1. We observed a relationship between VO2 BW and VT BW/TI, and between VT BW and TI/TTOT at each step of workload. We conclude that untrained children adapt the pattern of breathing during exercise, as at rest, to metabolic demand. However, the increase in f and the decrease in TI are limited at maximal workload.

Adaptation, Physiological↗
PubMed1993

Analysis of co-ordination between breathing and exercise rhythms in man.

1. The purpose of the present study was to analyse the incidence and type of coordination between breathing rhythm and leg movements during running and to assess the effect of co-ordination on the running efficiency, as well as to compare the results with those found during cycling. 2. The experiments were carried out on thirty-four untrained volunteers exercising at two work loads (60 and 80% of subject's physical work capacity 170) on a treadmill. In addition nineteen of the subjects exercised at the same two work loads on a bicycle ergometer. The subjects were running at both work loads in three different modes in randomized order: with normal arm movements, without arm movements and with breathing paced by an acoustic signal which was triggered by the leg movement. 3. Respiratory variables, oxygen uptake and leg movements were continuously recorded and evaluated on-line. The degree of co-ordination was expressed as a percentage of inspirations and/or expirations starting in the same phase of the step or pedalling cycle. 4. The average degree of co-ordination was higher during running (up to 40%) than during cycling (about 20%) during both work loads. The difference in the degree of co-ordination between running and cycling is probably not due to the lack of arm movements during cycling since the degree of co-ordination during running with and without arm movements was the same. 5. The degree of co-ordination during running increased slightly but not significantly with increasing work load and could be increased significantly by paced breathing. 6. The co-ordination between breathing and running rhythms occurred in three different patterns: (a) breathing was co-ordinated all the time with the same phase of step, (b) co-ordination switched suddenly from one phase of step to another and (c) co-ordination ensued alternatively once on the right and once on the left leg movement. During cycling the pattern described in (a) occurred almost exclusively. 7. During running with a high degree of co-ordination, oxygen uptake for a given work load was slightly but significantly lower than during running with weak co-ordination.

Adult↗
PubMed1997

Effect of step duration during incremental exercise on breathing pattern and mouth occlusion pressure.

We compared the effects of two step durations on breathing pattern, mouth occlusion pressure and "effective" impedance of the respiratory system during incremental exercise. Nine normal subjects (mean age: 27.8+/-1.21 years) performed two incremental exercise tests in randomized order: one test with step increments every 1 min 30s and the other, every 4 min. After a warm-up at 25 W for the 1 min 30 s test, the power was increased by 50 W from 50 W to exhaustion. During the last minute at each power, we measured ventilation (VE), tidal volume (VT), breathing frequency (fR), inspiratory and expiratory time (TI and TE), total time of the respiratory cycle (TTOT), TI/TTOT, mean inspiratory flow (VT/TI), mouth occlusion pressure (P0.1), "effective" impedance of the respiratory system (P0.1/(VT/ TI)) and venous blood lactate concentration ([La]). Our result showed that at maximal exercise the power was significantly higher (p < 0.01) and [La] lower (p < 0.01) in the 1 min 30 s test. At 100, 150 and 200 W, the 4 min test showed significantly higher oxygen uptake (VO2), carbon dioxide output (VCO2), VE, P0.1, fR, VT/TI and HR (p <0.001) and significantly lower TI, TE and TTOT (p<0.01). [La] was significantly higher at 150 W (p<0.05) and 200 W (p<0.001). At the same VCO2, P0.1 was not significantly different between the two tests, whereas VE showed a tendency to be higher (p = 0.08) and P0.1/(VT/TI) was significantly lower during the 4 min test. In conclusion, this study allowed us to quantify the difference in inspiratory neuromuscular output and ventilatory response between 1 min 30s and 4 min tests and showed that different step durations alter the relationship between inspiratory neuromuscular output and mean inspiratory flow.

Adult↗