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At least 253 records · Page 14Linked to original sources
PubMed1992

Effects of self-generated rules on the development of schedule-controlled behavior.

College students responded under a multiple differential-reinforcement-of-low-rate 5-s fixed-ratio 8 schedule, with components alternating every 2 min. After 40 programmed minutes of acquisition and 12 min of maintenance, without notice, both schedules changed to extinction for 28 min. During acquisition, between alternations of the multiple schedule, some subjects were asked to develop rules describing the schedule contingencies. Other subjects were given these same rules between alternations, and a third group neither received nor were asked to develop rules. By the end of the acquisition phase, self-generated-rule subjects were more likely to show schedule-typical behavior than were subjects not asked to generate rules. The behavior of those given rules was similar to those asked to generate rules at the end of acquisition, but yoked-rule subjects acquired schedule-typical behavior at a quicker rate. By the end of extinction, during the period corresponding to the previous fixed-ratio interval, all no-rule subjects who had earned points during acquisition and maintenance were responding at a rate of less than 30 responses per minute. Only 3 of the 9 self-generated-rule subjects and 2 of the 5 yoked-rule subjects were similarly responding at this low rate. Results suggest that asking subjects to develop self-rules facilitates acquisition, but can retard extinction. Results also suggest that self-generated rules function similarly to external rules.

Adult↗
PubMed1990

Evaluation of the pharmacological similarities between phenylpropanolamine and amphetamine: effects on schedule-controlled behavior.

In an effort to determine the degree to which the repeated administration of phenylpropanolamine (PPA) results in the development of tolerance to its disruptive effects on operant responding as well as cross-tolerance to the effects of acutely administered amphetamine, water-deprived rats were first trained on a fixed-ratio 5 (FR-5) schedule for water presentation. Dose-response curves for the effects of PPA and amphetamine (administered IP, 15 min presession) were then determined (ED50 = 35.0 and 2.6 mg/kg, respectively) followed by the chronic administration of 40.0 mg/kg PPA (administered IP, 15 min prior to each session). When responding returned to prechronic rates, the dose-response curves were redetermined for both PPA (ED50 = 220 mg/kg) and amphetamine (ED50 = 4.8 mg/kg). In a second set of rats, trained under similar conditions, it was observed that pretreatment with alpha-methyltyrosine (AMT, 100 mg/kg IP, 2 h presession) antagonized the disruptive effects of both PPA and amphetamine, whereas pretreatment with reserpine (0.31 mg/kg, IP, 12 h presession) antagonized the disruptive effects of PPA, but exacerbated the disruptive effects of amphetamine. In a separate experiment, the repeated administration of PPA 100 mg/kg or 200 mg/kg IP resulted in no long-lasting depletions of rat striatal dopamine, serotonin, or 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid (DOPAC) concentrations. These observations indicate that PPA and amphetamine share a similar mechanism of action to the degree that cross-tolerance develops, but which is nonetheless dissociable with respect to their differential sensitivity to antagonists and their neurotoxic efficacy.

Amphetamine↗
PubMed1993

Acute neurobehavioral effects of co-inhalation of toluene and n-hexane on schedule-controlled behavior in rats.

Whether coexposure to toluene and n-hexane had any combined effects on the shock avoidance performance in rats was studied. Eighteen Wistar male rats with an avoidance rate of over 80% were selected and divided to three groups based on performance and body weight: (1) toluene, (2) n-hexane, and (3) toluene + n-hexane. Each group was exposed alternately first to air and then to a particular organic solvent for 4 hr at various concentrations (50, 100, 200, 400, or 800 ppm, in ascending order). The effects of each organic solvent were evaluated by comparing the performance of rats during and after exposure with their own performance under the sham exposure to air by three-way ANOVA. The main results were that (1) 200, 400, or 800 ppm toluene exposures increased lever press rates, (2) 50 ppm n-hexane exposure decreased lever press and avoidance rates in a transitory manner and 800 ppm n-hexane exposure increased the lever press rate, (3) the 50 ppm mixture (25 ppm toluene + 25 ppm n-hexane) decreased lever press and avoidance rates persistently during and after the 4-hr exposure and the 800 ppm mixture (400 ppm toluene + 400 ppm n-hexane) decreased lever press and avoidance rates unpredictably when compared to the results of 400 or 800 ppm of toluene or n-hexane alone. In conclusion, n-hexane showed narcotic effects at 800 ppm and modified the acute neurobehavioral effects of toluene in rats at 400 ppm toward unpredictable results.

Administration, Inhalation↗
PubMed1987

Effects of ethylketazocine and morphine alone and in combination with naloxone on schedule-controlled behavior in pigeons.

The behavioral effects of morphine and ethylketazocine were compared in pigeons responding under multiple fixed-interval, fixed-ratio schedules of food presentation. Both morphine and ethylketazocine produced dose-related decreases in rates of responding maintained under either schedule. Maximal effects of morphine were observed about 15-45 min after injection and typically lasted the entire session (about 60 min). Effects of ethylketazocine had a faster onset (maximal effects were observed within 15 min after injection), and shorter duration (effects diminished within the session). Ethylketazocine and morphine had similar potencies. Dose-effect curves for both drugs were shifted to a similar degree by naloxone.

Analgesics, Opioid↗
PubMed1988

Opioid receptor subtype-specific cross-tolerance to the effects of morphine on schedule-controlled behavior in mice.

Key-press responding of mice was maintained under a fixed-ratio (FR) 30-response schedule of food presentation. Successive 3-min periods during which the experimental chamber was illuminated and the schedule was in effect were preceded by 10-min time-out (TO) periods during which all lights were out and responses had no scheduled consequences. Intraperitoneal (IP) injections of saline or of cumulative doses of drugs were given at the start of each TO period. Successive saline injections had little or no effect on response rates, whereas the mu-opioid agonists morphine (0.1-10.0 mg/kg) and levorphanol (0.1-3.0 mg/kg), the kappa-opioid agonist ethylketazocine (0.03-3.0 mg/kg), the mixed mu-/delta-opioid agonist metkephamid (0.1-10.0 mg/kg), and the nonopioid dissociative anesthetic ketamine (1.0-100.0 mg/kg) generally produced dose-related decreases in response rates. Following chronic administration of morphine (100.0 mg/kg/6 h), tolerance developed to the effects of morphine on rates of responding. In addition, a comparable degree of cross-tolerance developed to the effects of levorphanol and metkephamid. On the other hand, there was no evidence of cross-tolerance to the effects of ethylketazocine or ketamine. These results are consistent with the evidence suggesting that different opioid agonists exert their behavioral effects through distinct classes of opioid receptors.

Animals↗
PubMed1986

The effects of some putative antidepressant agents on the schedule-controlled behavior of the pigeon.

Numerous "second-generation" antidepressants with pharmacological profiles and chemical structures different from those of the tricyclic antidepressants have recently been developed. We examined the actions of four of these compounds (mianserin, maprotiline, trazodone and fluvoxamine) on the responding of pigeons under two different multiple (mult) schedules of grain presentation (a mult fixed-interval (FI) 600-s fixed-ratio (FR) 30-response and a mult FI 200-s FI 200-s in which responding in one component was punished by intermittent presentation of a brief electric shock). The rate of FI 600-s responding was greatly increased by several doses of maprotiline and mianserin, which either did not affect or produced only small increases in the rate of FR 30 responding. Fluvoxamine and trazodone did not produce similar differential effects. Relatively low doses of maprotiline, mianserin and trazodone decreased the FI quarter-lives. Fluvoxamine only decreased the FI quarter-life at a dose that largely eliminated responding. Mianserin produced proportionally greater increases in the rate of punished FI 200-s responding than in the rate of unpunished FI 200-s responding. Selective effects on punished responding were not seen with maprotiline, fluvoxamine and trazodone.

Animals↗
PubMed1987

Tolerance to antinociceptive effects of morphine without tolerance to its effects on schedule-controlled behavior.

The development of tolerance to behavioral effects of morphine was investigated in rats that responded on a two-lever, multiple-trial, multiple differential-reinforcement-of-low-rate fixed-ratio (mult DRL FR) schedule of food presentation. Stable performances were maintained when sessions were conducted just twice per week. The effects of cumulative doses of morphine (1.0-8.0 mg/kg) or chlordiazepoxide (CDP; 4.0-32.0 mg/kg) were evaluated once per week; saline injections were given in the intervening sessions. The effects of saline and morphine on nociception were also evaluated in hot-plate tests conducted on the same subjects 15 min after selected operant sessions. Initially, morphine produced dose-related decreases in response rates and reinforcement rates in the DRL and FR components as well as significant increases in hot-plate response latencies. Following weekly administration of morphine (1.0-8.0 mg/kg) for 10 weeks, there was little or no tolerance to its effects on operant behavior. In contrast, complete tolerance developed to the antinociceptive effects of morphine. These results suggest that tolerance to various behavioral effects of morphine may be dissociated, and that the loss of reinforcement may be insufficient by itself to produce tolerance to effects of morphine on operant behavior. Additionally, whereas CDP initially produced only dose-related decreases in DRL and FR response rates, following weekly morphine the smaller doses of CDP (4.0-16.0 mg/kg) produced increases in response rates.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Animals↗
PubMed1979

Effects of chronic d-amphetamine treatment on schedule-controlled behavior.

The effect of d-amphetamine added to the drinking water on the rate of conditioned lever pressing by rats was determined using fixed-ratio 30 (FR-30) and fixed-interval 2-min (FI-2) schedules of food presentation. After 32 days of gradual increase in drug concentration the average drug ingestion was 13 mg/kg/day. In tests with various doses of d-amphetamine injected before and after the chronic ingestion regimen, the rate-decreasing effects of d-amphetamine on FR responding were attenuated after chronic treatment, indicating development of a two- to three-fold tolerance. However, the rate-decreasing effect of d-amphetamine on FI responding was not altered by chronic ingestion. Since acute amphetamine treatment reduced the reinforcement frequency under the FR but not the FI schedule, these results are consistent with the hypothesis that a 'behavioral tolerance' will develop most readily to drug effects that decrease the frequency of reinforcement. Upon removal of d-amphetamine from the drinking water there was some increase in the rate of FR responding, but no change in FI responding.

Animals↗
PubMed1985

Effect of repeated intraperitoneal injections of soman on schedule-controlled behavior in the rat.

Intraperitoneal (IP) administration of the acetylcholinesterase inhibitor, soman (10-40 micrograms/kg), suppressed in a dose-related manner response rates in rats maintained under a multiple fixed-interval 50-s fixed-ratio 25 schedule of food delivery. Chronic administration of soman at weekly intervals resulted in tolerance to the response. When soman administration was separated by 2-5 weeks in individual rats, the suppressive effects of the agent again became apparent. Analysis of acetylcholinesterase activity revealed that enzyme inhibition was limited to gastrointestinal areas near the site of injection. There was no significant effect on brain acetylcholinesterase even following IP injection of doses which completely suppressed responding. The IP route may be useful for studying tolerance and other chronic effects of soman without producing generalized toxicity.

Acetylcholinesterase↗
PubMed1979

Naloxone effects on schedule-controlled behavior in morphine-pelleted rats.

The effects of morphine pellet implantation and naloxone administration were examined in rats lever pressing under inter-response time schedules of food presentation. Subcutaneous implantation of a morphine pellet initially decreased lever-pressing rates. Tolerance to this effect developed within 3--4 days. Naloxone (0.25--1.0 mg/kg) decreased response rates in morphine-pelleted rats in a dose-dependent and time-dependent manner. All doses of naloxone severely decreased rates of lever pressing on days four to nine post-pellet. This rate-decreasing effect persisted 7--17 days for 0.25 mg/kg naloxone, 9--22 days for 0.50 mg/kg, and 13--28 days for 1.0 mg/kg. Decreases in response rate were due to an increased frequency of long pauses and not to marked shifts in the temporal patterning of those lever presses that did occur. Changes in response rate after naloxone were accompanied by body weight loss. Area values summarizing the naloxone-induced changes in response rate or body weight over time after pellet implantation increased as a function of naloxone dose. Naloxone (0.25--1.0 mg/kg) did not alter performance by placebo-pelleted rats.

Animals↗
PubMed1980

Schedule-controlled behavior in the morphine-dependent and post-dependent rat.

Chronic morphine treatment has been reported to induce long-lasting changes in the responses of animals to the subsequent administration of morphine or narcotic antagonists. However, there have been few systematic studies in which the effects of morphine or narcotic antagonists have been compared in the same group of animals before, during, and after chronic morphine administration. Rats were trained to press a lever on a variable interval (1 min) schedule of food presentation and dose-response curves were determined for morphine (0.3--30 mg/kg) and naloxone (0.003--10 mg/kg) in the same group of animals prior to, during, and following morphine dependence. Dependence was induced and maintained by scheduled access to 0.05% morphine drinking solution for 10 min every 6 h. Response rates and fluid intake remained constant over the 9 month study. The dose-response curves for morphine and naloxone in predependent and dependent animals were similar to those previously reported in studies using other schedules of reinforcement and different techniques for establishing morphine dependence: chronic morphine treatment produced a threefold decrease in the effect of morphine and a dramatic increase in the effectiveness of naloxone in decreasing response rate. The altered sensitivity of dependent rats to morphine and naloxone was completely reversed in the post-dependent animals, within 4 weeks after the withdrawal of morphine. Scheduled access to a morphine solution affords a simple means of maintaining morphine-tolerant and dependent animals for long-term behavioral studies.

Animals↗
PubMed1985

Schedule-controlled behavior as an index of the development and loss of ethanol tolerance in the rat.

Twelve male Sprague-Dawley rats, following training on one of two food-motivated operant schedules (Fixed-Ratio 30 or Variable Interval 30 s), were exposed to an escalating regimen of daily ethanol (1.125-3.0 g/kg, IP) administration. This increasing dose regimen continued until the maximally tolerable dose for each subject was reached. Tolerance was then monitored for approximately 6 months by periodic ethanol challenge doses (1.5 g/kg). Dose-effect curves (DECs) were obtained prior to chronic ethanol (DEC1), immediately after ethanol tolerance development (DEC2), and 6 months (DEC3) following termination of ethanol exposure. At DEC1, ethanol produced dose-dependent decreases in rate on both schedules with no significant schedule differences in ED50 (the dose effective at reducing the maximal response rate by one-half) values. Maximal tolerance was achieved in means of 46 and 55 days on the VI and FR schedules, respectively. Differences in rate of tolerance acquisition on the initial dose of the chronic regimen (1.125 g/kg) account for most of the difference in the overall rate of acquisition. Comparison of the ED50 data from DECs 1 and 2 indicated that daily ethanol exposure resulted in a 2-fold decrease in ethanol sensitivity (i.e., tolerance) on both operant schedules. The ED50 data from DECs 1 and 3 demonstrated a 1.7-fold decrease in ethanol potency on DEC3. This duration of tolerance was considerably longer than that generally reported, and possibly related to the extended ethanol exposure and the sensitivity of operant schedules to drug effects.

Animals↗
PubMed1981

Effects of chronic delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol administration on schedule-controlled behavior of pigeons: cross-tolerance to pentobarbital and barbital.

Pigeons responding under a variable-interval (VI) 75-s schedule of food presentation were used to study cross-tolerance from delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol (delta 9-THC) to pentobarbital and barbital. After initial dose-effect functions for pentobarbital and barbital were determined, the birds received delta 9-THC injections for 6 weeks. This chronic administration regimen resulted in a greater than 100-fold tolerance to delta 9-THC. Redetermination of the pentobarbital and barbital dose-effect functions during the chronic delta 9-THC regimen revealed statistically significant shifts to the right for the pentobarbital (0.191 log unit) and barbital (0.078 log unit) dose-effect curves. All six birds showed tolerance to pentobarbital, while four of the six showed tolerance to barbital. Blood barbital levels before and after chronic delta 9-THC was more prolonged and of much greater magnitude than the cross-tolerance to pentobarbital or barbital. The results demonstrate that cross-tolerance can develop from delta 9-THC to a barbiturate that normally undergoes little metabolism.

Animals↗