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PubMed2026

Evaluation of amplicon-based nanopore sequencing for foot-and-mouth disease viruses in clinical and environmental samples.

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) causes severe global economic loss, necessitating rapid viral characterization. Nanopore sequencing provides a simple, real-time workflow suitable for on-site outbreak response, addressing the limitations of conventional methods. In this study, we optimized a previously published amplicon-based protocol and used this method to characterize a diverse range of samples (vesicular fluid, epithelium, serum, nasal/oral swabs, and environmental samples) collected during FMD outbreaks in 2025 in the Republic of Korea. Of the 129 samples collected, we successfully recovered complete genomes from 37 samples and VP1 sequences from 85 samples. Amplifying the S-fragment in isolation and separately barcoding each pool of PCR amplicons markedly improved sequence recovery. Furthermore, sequencing success depended on viral load and sample type. Based on comparisons with real-time RT-PCR results, whole-genome sequence (WGS) recovery exceeded 77.3% at cycle threshold (Ct) values ≤25 across all clinical samples. In the Ct > 30 category, serum samples yielded the highest WGS recovery rates (44.4%). This rate was markedly higher than the success rates observed for epithelium (20.0%) and nasal swabs (9.1%), whereas oral swabs and environmental samples failed to yield any sequences (0%). However, VP1 recovery from environmental samples reached 80% at Ct ≤ 30 (8/10), providing an approach to enable non-invasive monitoring. These findings demonstrate that amplicon-based nanopore sequencing is a practical method for the rapid generation of genomic data during FMD outbreaks.IMPORTANCEAlthough rapid detection and genomic data analysis are crucial for effective foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) control, the collection of these data can be challenging for certain sample types and impacted by reduced viral loads that result from nationwide FMD vaccination. This study provides a practical solution through large-scale evaluation of an optimized amplicon-based nanopore sequencing protocol to enhance the sequencing success rates for both clinical and environmental samples. Using a modified protocol to enhance genome recovery, we demonstrated that sequence data could be retrieved from diverse sample types (even with high real-time RT-PCR cycle threshold values). We identified serum as the most suitable sample, with environmental sample sequencing allowing for non-invasive monitoring during outbreaks. These results support the use of nanopore sequencing for rapid genomic analysis, particularly in outbreak responses, such as rapid surveillance, emergency vaccine selection, and epidemiological monitoring.

Foot-and-Mouth Disease↗
PubMed1990

[Riems foot-and-mouth disease oil emulsion vaccines for swine. 1. Development and testing of highly effective and well-tolerated foot-and-mouth disease vaccine for swine using Dessauer oil adjuvants].

Swine plays a very particular role in FMD epizootiology. It is, therefore, absolutely necessary to have highly effective vaccines available for this species at all times. They have to ensure early buildup of long-lasting strong immunity even after one single application. Since the effectiveness of conventional adsorbate vaccines had proved to be insufficient, monovalent and trivalent oil emulsion vaccines were specifically developed of swine, using a GDR-made oil adjuvant. Stable immunity is very soon induced by them to endangered pig stock even against the immunologically problematic sub-types O1 and A5 after one single subcutaneous (s.c.) application of 2 ml (monovalent) or 5 ml (trivalent). Application establishes in s.c. connective tissue an oil emulsion depot that leads to formation of a vaccination granuloma. The immunocompetent cells identified in the latter are morphologically correlated to adjuvant action.

Adjuvants, Immunologic↗
PubMed2002

A point pattern model of the spread of foot-and-mouth disease.

The spatial spread of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is influenced by several sources of spatial heterogeneity: heterogeneity of the exposure to the virus, heterogeneity of the animal density and heterogeneity of the networks formed by the contacts between farms. A discrete space model assuming that farms can be reduced to points is proposed to handle these different factors. The farm-to-farm process of transmission of the infection is studied using point-pattern methodology. Farm management, commercial exchanges, possible airborne transmission, etc. cannot be explicitly taken into account because of lack of data. These latter factors are introduced via surrogate variables such as herd size and distance between farms. The model is built on the calculation of an infectious potential for each farm. This method has been applied to the study of the 1967-1968 FMD epidemic in UK and allowed us to evaluate the spatial variation of the probability of infection during this epidemic. Maximum likelihood estimation has been conducted conditional on the absence of data concerning the farms which were not infected during the epidemic. Model parameters have then been tested using an approximated conditional-likelihood ratio test. In this case study, results and validation are limited by the lack of data, but this model can easily be extended to include other information such as the effect of wind direction and velocity on airborne spread of the virus or the complex interactions between the locations of farms and the herd size. It can also be applied to other diseases where point approximation is convenient. In the context of an increase of animal density in some areas, the model explicitly incorporates the density and known epidemiological characteristics (e.g. incubation period) in the calculation of the probability of FMD infection. Control measures such as vaccination or slaughter can be simply introduced, respectively, as a reduction of the susceptible population or as a reduction of the source of infection.

Animal Husbandry↗
PubMed2005

The structure of foot-and-mouth disease virus.

Structural studies of foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) have largely focused on the mature viral particle, providing atomic resolution images of the spherical protein capsid for a number of sero- and sub-types, structures of the highly immunogenic surface loop, Fab and GAG receptor complexes. Additionally, structures are available for a few non-structural proteins. The chapter reviews our current structural knowledge and its impact on our understanding of the virus life cycle proceeding from the mature virus through immune evasion/inactivation, cell-receptor binding and replication and alludes to future structural targets.

Capsid Proteins↗
PubMed2001

The eradication of foot-and-mouth disease: a parallel problem.

Poliomyelitis and foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) can both be prevented by vaccination. The vaccines are highly effective but they differ in that, whereas in most countries attenuated viruses have been used to control poliomyelitis, FMD vaccines are prepared from the virulent viruses. The reasons for choosing inactivated vaccines for FMD are (i) the demonstration several decades ago that a virus which was attenuated for one species could be virulent for another and (ii) the great antigenic variability of the virus. This has meant that the viruses to be used for vaccination have to "match" those occurring in the field. It also means that they should only be handled under strict conditions of containment.

Animals↗
PubMed2003

Novel viral disease control strategy: adenovirus expressing alpha interferon rapidly protects swine from foot-and-mouth disease.

We have previously shown that replication of foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) is highly sensitive to alpha/beta interferon (IFN-alpha/beta). In the present study, we constructed recombinant, replication-defective human adenovirus type 5 vectors containing either porcine IFN-alpha or IFN-beta (Ad5-pIFNalpha or Ad5-pIFNbeta). We demonstrated that cells infected with these viruses express high levels of biologically active IFN. Swine inoculated with 10(9) PFU of a control Ad5 virus lacking the IFN gene and challenged 24 h later with FMDV developed typical signs of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD), including fever, vesicular lesions, and viremia. In contrast, swine inoculated with 10(9) PFU of Ad5-pIFNalpha were completely protected when challenged 24 h later with FMDV. These animals showed no clinical signs of FMD and no viremia and did not develop antibodies against viral nonstructural proteins, suggesting that complete protection from infection was achieved.

Adenoviridae↗
PubMed1992

Protective immune response against foot-and-mouth disease.

The causative agents of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) are small icosahedral viruses of the Aphthovirus group within the Picornaviridae family. There is no evidence that these viruses infect cells of the immune system or otherwise interfere detrimentally with their function; additionally, it has not been possible to relate cytotoxicity reactions against virus-infected cells to the efficacy of the immune response against FMD virus infection. In contrast, there is a close association between FMD virus antibody and the protective immune response (10, 14, 15, 20, 24, 25, 29-32). Induction of this antibody is dependent on the structure of the viral antigenic sites (7-9, 11, 18) and on the concomitant presence of Th-lymphocyte epitopes (4, 5, 7, 8), although a Th-lymphocyte-independent response has been reported (2). Recent work by Piatti et al. (26) showed that the immune response induced by FMD virus was only Th-lymphocyte dependent when low doses of antigen were used. This latter work was performed in mice, and it is not certain that a similar situation would be found in cattle. As for the major effector immune defense, this relies on the interaction between antibody-virus complexes and the phagocytic cells of the reticuloendothelial system (17, 19).

Animals↗
PubMed1978

In vitro comparison of foot-and-mouth disease virus subtype variants causing disease in vaccinated cattle.

Foot-and-mouth disease virus isolates of types O, A and SAT 2, from diseased animals in herds routinely vaccinated twice a year were compared antigenically with the vaccine strains in the complement-fixation, neutralization and radial immunodiffusion tests. It was found that strains which had readily infected vaccinated cattle had R values against the vaccine strain in the complementfixation and radial immunodiffusion tests of 30 or less, while strains causing primary outbreaks with little spread had R values of 30-40. Threefold differences in humoral neutralizing antibody concentration between the field variant and the vaccine strain in sera from vaccinated animals were likely to be significant in terms of protection.

Animals↗
PubMed2006

Specificity of the VP1 GH loop of Foot-and-Mouth Disease virus for alphav integrins.

Foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) can use a number of integrins as receptors to initiate infection. Attachment to the integrin is mediated by a highly conserved arginine-glycine-aspartic acid (RGD) tripeptide located on the GH loop of VP1. Other residues of this loop are also conserved and may contribute to integrin binding. In this study we have used a 17-mer peptide, whose sequence corresponds to the GH loop of VP1 of type O FMDV, as a competitor of integrin-mediated virus binding and infection. Alanine substitution through this peptide identified the leucines at the first and fourth positions following RGD (RGD+1 and RGD+4 sites) as key for inhibition of virus binding and infection mediated by alphavbeta6 or alphavbeta8 but not for inhibition of virus binding to alphavbeta3. We also show that FMDV peptides containing either methionine or arginine at the RGD+1 site, which reflects the natural sequence variation seen across the FMDV serotypes, are effective inhibitors for alphavbeta6. In contrast, although RGDM-containing peptides were effective for alphavbeta8, RGDR-containing peptides were not. These observations were confirmed by showing that a virus containing an RGDR motif uses alphavbeta8 less efficiently than alphavbeta6 as a receptor for infection. Finally, evidence is presented that shows alphavbeta3 to be a poor receptor for infection by type O FMDV. Taken together, our data suggest that the integrin binding loop of FMDV has most likely evolved for binding to alphavbeta6 with a higher affinity than to alphavbeta3 and alphavbeta8.

Animals↗
PubMed2003

Protective immune response of the capsid precursor polypeptide (P1) of foot and mouth disease virus type 'O' produced in Pichia pastoris.

Foot and mouth disease virus (FMDV) is the aetiological agent of a highly contagious vesicular disease of cloven-hooved animals. The gene coding for the capsid polyprotein (P1) of FMDV from serotype 'O' vaccine strain (O75Madras) was cloned and expressed in yeast Pichia pastoris. The expressed P1 protein was characterised by sodium dodecyl sulphate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) and Western Blot analysis. Immunisation of Guinea pigs with recombinant P1 induced FMDV type O specific immune response. The humoral response to vaccine was measured by indirect ELISA and a serum neutralisation test (SNT). The Guinea pig sera showed high titres both in ELISA and SNT. Upon challenge with virulent Guinea pig adapted homologous type 'O' virus, the animals showed a protective index of 2.52. This study shows that the yeast expressed FMDV P1 could be a safe vaccine in non-endemic countries and a cost-effective vaccine in endemic countries. This is the first report on the production of FMDV structural proteins in yeast and their application as a vaccine.

Animals↗
PubMed2004

Re-emergence of foot-and-mouth disease in Botswana.

The re-emergence of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) in Botswana is reported. The disease outbreak occurred in the Matsiloje Extension Area of Francistown veterinary district situated in the northeastern part of the country in an Office International des épízooties (OIE) recognized FMD free zone without vaccination. The disease affected cattle only and did not spillover into sheep and goats resident in the same extension area, as demonstrated by lack of seroconversion to FMD when tested. The virus isolate associated with the outbreak was identified as FMD virus; Southern African Territories (SAT) type SAT-2. The disease outbreak is discussed in relation to FMD outbreaks that have occurred previously within and outside Botswana.

Animals↗
PubMedDate not supplied

[Isolation of foot-and mouth disease virus in swine with other diseases].

The authors took a survey of foot-and-mouth disease samples of myocardium and tonsil from swine which was died without clinicals signs of foot-and-mouth disease, with isolation of virus, type O, A and C. It was observed and accentuated relation between the incidence of hog cholera, pneumonia and atipic foot-and-mouth disease, especially from suckling pigs.

Animals↗