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PubMed2001

Metacognition in motor learning.

Research on judgments of verbal learning has demonstrated that participants' judgments are unreliable and often overconfident. The authors studied judgments of perceptual-motor learning. Participants learned 3 keystroke patterns on the number pad of a computer, each requiring that a different sequence of keys be struck in a different total movement time. Practice trials on each pattern were either blocked or randomly interleaved with trials on the other patterns, and each participant was asked, periodically, to predict his or her performance on a 24-hr test. Consistent with earlier findings, blocked practice enhanced acquisition but harmed retention. Participants, though, predicted better performance given blocked practice. These results augment research on judgments of verbal learning and suggest that humans, at their peril, interpret current ease of access to a perceptual-motor skill as a valid index of learning.

Adult↗

PubMed1999

Role of the hippocampal system in conditional motor learning: mapping antecedents to action.

Macaque monkeys can learn arbitrary mappings between stimuli and spatially directed actions (often termed conditional motor learning), and, after the development of a strong learning set, can do so in just a few trials. Ablation studies have shown that the hippocampus plus subjacent cortex is necessary for this rapid and highly flexible type of learning. We consider evidence that the arbitrary mapping function of the hippocampal system may be more general and fundamental than currently accepted and what limitations there may be, if any, on the information that it can map. Removal of the hippocampal system yields a pattern of deficits and preserved abilities that correlates remarkably closely with that found in human global amnesics, such as patient H.M., on a variety of declarative memory tasks. Thus, the rapid acquisition of arbitrary visuomotor mappings may represent an example of declarative memory in nonhuman primates.

Animals↗

PubMed1980

The relative weightings of visual and nonvisual coding in a simple motor learning task.

A linear positioning task was used to examine the effects of visual and nonvisual inputs on motor learning. The experiment had three factors with two levels of each namely: sensory modality (visual-nonvisual), transfer at recall (changed-unchanged), size of movement (25.4 cm, 50.8 com). Three dependent variable were used: absolute error (AE), constant error (CE), and variable error (VE). The results suggest that visual dominance causes disruption of recall in the visual, changed conditions. No disruption of recall was found for the nonvisual condition other than in terms of CE with respect to movement sizes. The results are taken to follow Posner et al.'s (1976) theory of visual dominance, but some account of the spatial qualities of visual and kinesthetic information is needed.

Journal Article↗

PubMed1990

Integrating motor control and motor learning concepts with neuropsychological perspectives on apraxia and developmental dyspraxia.

This paper reviews selected pertinent literature on the learning and performance of skilled motor acts. Information on normal motor performance is integrated with that on adult apraxia and related to common problems observed in children with developmental dyspraxia. The process of motor skill acquisition is outlined, and aspects of styles of motor organization, modes of control, premovement organization, sensory organization, and analysis of the types of errors are presented. Recommendations for clinicians working with children with developmental dyspraxia are offered.

Apraxias↗

PubMed1989

[Epilepsy and the speed of learning motor skills].

In 64 epileptics (mean age 35.7 years, mean onset of the disease at the age of 12.1 years) the author used a test of learning a series of movements (TOSP B). It involves the performance of a series of three asymmetrical movements maximal speed of learning is evaluated. Patients with epilepsy have a significantly reduced rate of motor learning, as compared with two comparable group of healthy subjects (104 and 67 subjects). Patients with a favourable course of the disease (n = 24) are significantly quicker than patients with an adverse development of the disease (n = 40). The author discusses the revealed significant correlation with the duration of the disease, contact with psychiatry, later onset of the disease, IQ and education, Contrary to expectations, the correlation with age was not significant, the factor of the disease being more important than the factor of ageing. Tests of asymmetrical movements are sensitive for the detection of relatively subclinical symptoms of cerebral affections. They prove useful as a stable part of neuropsychological examinations in epileptic patients.

Adult↗

PubMed1994

Effects of bandwidth goals and bandwidth knowledge of results on motor learning.

An experiment is reported that contrasted two recent hypotheses about the guiding effects of knowledge of results (KR) on motor learning. Specifically, the purpose was to compare the impact of the nature of the KR itself versus the effect of the information conveyed by the KR on learning. We compared four groups of subjects, comprising a factorial combination of KR conditions (specific or bandwidth) and the movement timing goal (specific or bandwidth). All subjects performed 100 acquisition trials and 20 retention trials. The results revealed that bandwidth KR conditions facilitated learning, regardless of the specificity of the movement goal. These effects support the hypothesis that when error KR is provided, its very provision can block error detection activities that are important for retention performance.

Adult↗

PubMed1995

The effects of augmented information on motor learning: a multidimensional assessment.

Subjects performed trials of a two-hand coordination task involving the manipulation of a small, steel ball through a maze. During the acquisition phase, control subjects received no augmented information while subjects in two experimental groups were provided with visual aids or a cognitive strategy. One day later, subjects performed under control conditions on familiar (relearning phase) and unfamiliar (transfer phase) sections of the maze. A 3 x 3 (Group x Phase) repeated measures multivariate analysis of variance revealed significant phase differences for all dependent measures but no significant group effects. Chi-square analysis of ratings of cue usage as well as postexperimental interviews suggested, however, that practice conditions differentially influenced the search strategies of subjects. Implications of the findings for contemporary theories of motor learning are discussed.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1992

A motor area rostral to the supplementary motor area (presupplementary motor area) in the monkey: neuronal activity during a learned motor task.

1. The rostromesial agranular frontal cortex of macaque monkey (Macaca fuscata), traditionally defined as the supplementary motor area (SMA), was studied using various physiological techniques to delineate two different areas rostrocaudally. 2. Field and unitary responses to electrical stimulation of the primary motor cortex were distinct in the caudal part, but minimal or absent in the rostral part. Intracortical microstimulation readily evoked limb or orofacial movements in the caudal part, but only infrequently in the rostral part. Neuronal responses to visual stimuli prevailed in the rostral part, but somatosensory responses were rare. The opposite was true in the caudal part. 3. The rostral part, roughly corresponding to area 6a beta, was operationally defined as the presupplementary motor area (pre-SMA). The caudal part was redefined as the SMA proper. 4. Single-cell activity in the pre-SMA was quantitatively compared with that in the SMA proper in relation to a trained motor task. 5. Phasic responses to visual cue signals indicating the direction of forthcoming arm-reaching movement were more abundant in the pre-SMA. 6. Activity changes during the preparatory period, which lasted until the occurrence of the trigger signal for the reaching movement, were more frequent in the pre-SMA. 7. Phasic, movement-related activity was more frequent in the SMA, and its onset was often time locked to the movement onset. In the pre-SMA, the occurrences of response time locked to the movement-trigger signal were more frequent than in the SMA. 8. Among neurons in both areas, directional selectivity was found in all the cue, preparatory, and movement-related responses.

Animals↗

PubMed2006

Botulinum toxin as an adjunct to motor learning therapy and surgery for obstetrical brachial plexus injury.

Following obstetrical brachial plexus injury, infants are unable to learn specific patterns of movement due to the disruption of neural pathways. Even with successful reinnervation (spontaneously or post surgical reconstruction), function can be suboptimal due to overactivity in antagonist muscles preventing movement of reinnervated muscles. Botulinum toxin type A (BTX-A) was used to temporarily weaken antagonistic muscles early in the reinnervation process following brachial plexus injury, with the aim of facilitating functional improvement. A case series of eight children (five females, three males; mean age 12.5mo [SD 6.43]; range 5-22mo) with significant muscle imbalances but evidence of reinnervation were given BTX-A injections into the triceps, pectoralis major, and/or latissimus dorsi muscles. After a single injection, all parents reported improvement in function. Active Movement Scale total score changed significantly between pre BTX-A and 1 month (p=0.014), and 4 months (p=0.022) post BTX-A injection. It is proposed that BTX-A facilitated motor learning through improved voluntary relaxation of antagonist muscles while allowing increased activity in reinnervated muscles.

Biomechanical Phenomena↗

PubMed2005

Sensory motor learning in patients with chronic low back pain: a prospective pilot study using optoelectronic movement analysis.

STUDY DESIGN: The effect of sensory motor learning (SML) on chronic low back pain (CLBP) patients' movement capacity was evaluated with the optoelectronic Posturo-Locomotion-Manual (PLM) test. OBJECTIVE: To study SML changes of an intentional dynamic behavior of daily life in a group of CLBP patients and compare the performance with an age- and sex-matched group of back-healthy individuals. SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA: In a previous study, the PLM test was found reliable when used in CLBP patients. SML addresses dynamic movement capacity. There is little scientific evidence of the effectiveness of educational interventions in improving motor behavior. METHODS: Twelve patients with treatment-resistant CLBP were selected by two orthopedic spine surgeons. Twelve back-healthy age- and sex-matched individuals were included as controls. The patients participated in weekly SML lessons during a maximum of 12 months. All study participants were investigated with the PLM test, before intervention, directly after intervention, and 10 to 12 months after completion of the intervention, and patients were compared with controls. RESULTS: Before intervention significant differences in performance were found between the group of patients and the healthy control group. After the intervention, the CLBP patients had improved their performance so there were no longer any significant differences between the groups. The results were retained 12 months after intervention. CONCLUSIONS: The study shows that the CLBP patients had learned and retained a more efficient behavior. The results suggest that SML is an effective intervention for nonspecific CLBP patients.

Adult↗

PubMed1994

Purkinje cell complex spike activity during voluntary motor learning: relationship to kinematics.

1. We examined the relationship of cerebellar Purkinje cell discharge to the scaling of kinematics during a voluntary motor learning paradigm. The study focused on whether the occurrence of complex spike (CS) discharge was associated with kinematic changes. Two primates (Macaca mulatta) were trained to move a cursor using a two-joint manipulandum over a horizontal video screen from a start target to one of four target boxes. The relationship between the cursor and the hand (gain) was changed, requiring scaling of movement distance to complete the task. As previously described, when the novel gain was presented over 100-200 movement trials the animals adapted their movements by using a strategy of scaling the amplitude and velocity of the first phase of the movement while keeping time to peak velocity constant. 2. The paradigm consisted of four different phases. A control phase at a gain of 1.0 was initially performed. The learning phase over the next 180-210 movements used one of four gains (0.6, 0.75, 1.5, or 2.0). Last, a testing phase involved 80% of 100 trials at the learned gain and 20% of the trials at the control gain of 1.0. The distance control phase consisted of using a gain of 1.0 but having the animal move to targets placed at the distance and direction the hand moved in the adapted state. 3. Simple spikes (SSs) and CSs of 141 Purkinje cells recorded primarily in the intermediate and lateral regions of zones V and VI in three cerebellar hemispheres from the two primates were recorded during the distance control, control, learning, and testing phases. Some cells were recorded in lobule VII and Crus I. CS activity increased during the learning phase, as documented previously. The increase in CS discharge occurred before or during the first 200-300 ms of the movement. This is the same time period in which the kinematic changes necessary for adaptation to the novel gain occur. Of 141 Purkinje cells recorded during the learning paradigm, 104 (74%) demonstrated significant increases in CS firing rate during the learning-testing phase. Of these 104 cells, 82 had statistically significant SS modulation. 4. Movement trials with CSs were separated from the trials without CSs. Aligning the kinematic and spike train data on movement onset, the average velocity profiles were subtracted from each other and a strict statistical criterion applied to test for the significance of any differences. Movement trials randomly sorted into two groups served as a control.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Animals↗

PubMed1991

Methodology for motor learning: a paradigm for kinematic feedback.

Knowledge of results (KR)--information feedback about goal achievement--has been one of the most extensively examined variables in motor learning. In most natural movement learning situations, however, instructors more common]y provide augmented information regarding various kinematic or kinetic aspects of the movement pattern itself (sometimes termed knowledge of performance, KP). But despite the inherent interest in kinematic feedback, several factors reviewed here have operated to inhibit its study, the most important of which has been the lack of a suitable laboratory task and paradigm. The limitations of earlier paradigms have concerned (a) the use of overly simple motor behaviors, probably to minimize the problems in kinematic measurement, (b) the tendency for the environmental goal or the task to be isomorphic with the kinematic pattern, and (c) thc failure to use transfer or retention tests as measures of learning effects of the feedback manipulations. In this article, we describe our efforts to create a new paradigm for kinematic feedback, the rationale for its development, and the details of its operation. Finally, we provide evidence that the task and paradigm are sensitive to manipulations of kinematic feedback, providing some assurance that the paradigm can potentially answer future research questions about the role of kinematic feedback for learning.

Journal Article↗

PubMed2000

Motor learning through the combination of primitives.

In this paper we discuss a new perspective on how the central nervous system (CNS) represents and solves some of the most fundamental computational problems of motor control. In particular, we consider the task of transforming a planned limb movement into an adequate set of motor commands. To carry out this task the CNS must solve a complex inverse dynamic problem. This problem involves the transformation from a desired motion to the forces that are needed to drive the limb. The inverse dynamic problem is a hard computational challenge because of the need to coordinate multiple limb segments and because of the continuous changes in the mechanical properties of the limbs and of the environment with which they come in contact. A number of studies of motor learning have provided support for the idea that the CNS creates, updates and exploits internal representations of limb dynamics in order to deal with the complexity of inverse dynamics. Here we discuss how such internal representations are likely to be built by combining the modular primitives in the spinal cord as well as other building blocks found in higher brain structures. Experimental studies on spinalized frogs and rats have led to the conclusion that the premotor circuits within the spinal cord are organized into a set of discrete modules. Each module, when activated, induces a specific force field and the simultaneous activation of multiple modules leads to the vectorial combination of the corresponding fields. We regard these force fields as computational primitives that are used by the CNS for generating a rich grammar of motor behaviours.

Animals↗

PubMed1994

Motor learning in lurcher mutant mice.

Lurcher mutant mice, characterized by degeneration of the olivo-cerebellar system, were evaluated in two tests of motor coordination: the inclined screen test and the tilted platform test. Lurcher mutants were not impaired, in comparison to normal littermate controls, in the inclined screen test. In the tilted platform test, lurcher mutants fell more quickly than normal mice. However, with repeated testing, the amount of time spent on the platform by lurcher mutants and controls increased at the same rate within a 3 day period. These results demonstrate that lurcher mutants, although ataxic, have spared motor capabilities. In a test where motor deficits occurred, rapid improvement was seen. Thus, in spite of massive cerebellar degeneration, there was no evidence of a decreased rate in motor learning.

Animals↗

PubMed1997

Role of the inferior olivary complex in motor skills and motor learning in the adult rat.

The inferior olivary complex of adult rats was chemically destroyed using intraperitoneal injection of 3-acetylpyridine. Animals were submitted to different motor tasks: hanging test, equilibrium test and motor co-ordination test. The different scores show that 3-acetylpyridine-treated rats had motor co-ordination and static equilibrium deficiencies, whereas their rod suspension capabilities were intact. Animals were also trained on an unrotated rod or on a rod rotating at 5, 10 or 20 r.p.m. 3-Acetylpyridine-treated rats were able to maintain their equilibrium on the unrotated rod and at 5 r.p.m. Moreover, after motor training at 5 r.p.m., rats were able to improve their motor skills and reached the same score as controls. Despite their good motor skills, animals were unable to maintain their equilibrium when rotated at 10 and 20 r.p.m. These results suggest that the inferior olivary complex is needed for motor learning involving the temporal organization of movement.

Age Factors↗

PubMed2004

Motor-learning impairment by amantadine in healthy volunteers.

NMDA receptor antagonists impair learning and memory in animal models, presumably by inhibiting long-term potentiation in the motor cortex. Human studies are limited and restricted by the paucity of safe NMDA antagonists. Here, we investigated the contribution of glutamatergic neurotransmission to the capacity of acquiring motor-adaptation learning in humans. In a double-blind design, 200 mg of amantadine (a low-affinity NMDA receptor channel blocker) or a matching placebo were given orally to groups of 14 and 13 human healthy young volunteers, respectively. Blood samples were collected 3 h after treatment to assay plasma concentrations, and the subjects were then tested using a motor-adaptation paradigm consisting of an eight-target-pointing task. To rule out drug-related generalized impairments such sedation, tests measuring motor dexterity and attention were also administered pre- and post-treatment. Comparison of the mean performance levels on the motor-adaptation task revealed that subjects in the amantadine group performed at a lower level than those in the placebo group, but this difference did not reach significance. Interestingly, however, despite plasma amantadine concentrations being relatively low, ranging from 2.09 to 4.74 microM (mean=3.3 microM), they nevertheless correlated negatively with motor learning. Furthermore, when the amantadine group was divided into low-performance and high-performance subgroups, subjects in the former subgroup displayed mean amantadine concentrations 36% higher than the latter subgroup, and performed significantly worser than the placebo group. No change in performance was found on the motor-dexterity and attention tests. Altogether, our results lend support to the hypothesis that normal NMDA receptor function is necessary for the acquisition of motor adaptation.

Adaptation, Psychological↗

PubMed1990

Birth of projection neurons in adult avian brain may be related to perceptual or motor learning.

Projection neurons that form part of the motor pathway for song control continue to be produced and to replace older projection neurons in adult canaries and zebra finches. This is shown by combining [3H]thymidine, a cell birth marker, and fluorogold, a retrogradely transported tracer of neuronal connectivity. Species and seasonal comparisons suggest that this process is related to the acquisition of perceptual or motor memories. The ability of an adult brain to produce and replace projection neurons should influence our thinking on brain repair.

Animals↗

PubMed2003

A developmental approach AIDS motor learning.

Bernstein (1967) suggested that people attempting to learn to perform a difficult motor task try to ameliorate the degrees-of-freedom problem through the use of a developmental progression. Early in training, people maintain a subset of their control parameters (e.g., joint positions) at constant settings and attempt to learn to perform the task by varying the values of the remaining parameters. With practice, people refine and improve this early-learned control strategy by also varying those parameters that were initially held constant. We evaluated Bernstein's proposed developmental progression using six neural network systems and found that a network whose training included developmental progressions of both its trajectory and its feedback gains outperformed all other systems. These progressions, however, yielded performance benefits only on motor tasks that were relatively difficult to learn. We conclude that development can indeed aid motor learning.

Computer Simulation↗