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PubMed1999

The influence of stimulus temperature rise rate, adapting temperature, and stimulus duration on suprathreshold responses evoked by noxious heat in the glabrous skin of the limb. Comparison of neuronal discharge in the rat spinal dorsal horn with human sensations.

The influence of stimulus temperature rise rate (2.5 degrees C/s, 5.0 degrees C/s, and 10.0 degrees C/s), adapting (baseline) temperature (25 degrees C, 30 degrees C, and 35 degrees C), and duration of peak stimulus temperature (1.0 s, 2.5 s, 5.0 s, and 10.0 s) on responses evoked by noxious heat stimuli of suprathreshold intensity was studied in wide dynamic range (WDR) neurons of the rat spinal dorsal horn. The spinal neuronal responses were compared with human psychophysical data obtained using the same stimuli. Noxious heat stimuli with a peak temperature of 54 degrees C were applied with a contact thermostimulator to the glabrous skin of the hindfoot in rats or to the palmar skin in humans. With the highest ramp rate and the highest adapting temperature, the sensory and spinal neuronal response latencies were decreased more than expected on the basis of the change in physical parameters of the stimulus. The magnitudes of sensory and spinal neuronal response were independent of the stimulus ramp rate, whereas pain magnitude estimates and spinal neuronal impulse counts evoked by the same peak stimulus temperature were increased with an increase in the adapting stimulus temperature. The onset latencies of pain reactions and spinal neuronal responses were independent of the peak stimulus duration, whereas the latency of the maximum discharge in spinal neurons increased with prolongation of the peak stimulus. The sensory magnitude estimate of pain and the neuronal impulse count were increased with increase in stimulus duration. Following spinalization, the spinal neuronal responses were stronger and the stimulus duration-dependent increase in the impulse count developed faster. Moreover, the peak frequency of spinal neuronal response increased significantly with prolongation of the heat stimuli after spinalization, but not in animals with an intact spinal cord. The results indicate that stimulus rise rate, stimulus duration, and the adapting temperature are important factors in determining the sensory and spinal neuronal responses to high-intensity heat stimuli. The changes in the total impulse counts evoked by varying supraliminal heat stimuli in spinal dorsal horn WDR neurons corresponded well with the changes in pain magnitude estimates in humans. Also, the changes in spinal neuronal response onset latencies were accompanied by corresponding changes in onset latencies of human pain reactions but not with pain magnitude estimates. The effect of spinalization indicated that descending pathways control not only the response magnitude in the spinal dorsal horn WDR neurons but also the temporal characteristics of the spinal neuronal response.

Acclimatization↗

PubMed1996

Rhythms of body temperature and temperature selection are out of phase in a diurnal rodent, Octodon degus.

Individual Chilean degus (Octodon degus) were maintained in a thermal gradient (14 degrees C to 33 degrees C) for two or more weeks under a 14L:10D light-dark cycle. All animals showed robust daily rhythms of body temperature and locomotor activity consistent with the diurnal habits of the species. They also showed a robust daily rhythm of temperature selection 180 degrees out of phase with the rhythms of body temperature and locomotor activity. These results in a diurnal species extend previous findings of a 180 degrees phase difference between the rhythms of body temperature and temperature selection in nocturnal rodents. The asynchrony between these two rhythms implies an opposition between the circadian system (responsible for the generation of the body temperature rhythm) and the homeostatic system (responsible for the behavioral response of temperature selection that opposes the body temperature rhythm.

Animals↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Body temperature and ethanol pharmacokinetics in temperature-challenged mice.

The relationships between ambient temperature, body temperature, ethanol pharmacokinetics and behavioral sensitivity to ethanol were examined in C57BL/6 mice. Mice were injected intraperitoneally with 3.6 or 2.0 g/kg ethanol. Exposure to increasing ambient temperatures of 4-34 degrees C immediately after ethanol injection resulted in a significant increase in body temperature, ethanol elimination rate and brain:blood ethanol concentration ratios in 3.6 g/kg ethanol-injected mice, but not in mice injected with 2.0 g/kg ethanol. As the mean body temperature increased from 26.0 to 38.2 degrees C in the 3.6 g/kg mice, there was a 50% increase in ethanol elimination rate. Delayed (30 min) exposure to increasing ambient temperatures following injection of 3.6 g/kg ethanol resulted in a significant increase in ethanol elimination rate, a marked increase in the duration of loss of righting reflex and a decrease in ethanol concentration at the regain of righting reflex. The results indicate that temperature-induced changes in the absorption, distribution and elimination of ethanol do not appear to mediate the effects of temperature on behavioral sensitivity to ethanol in C57 mice.

Animals↗

PubMed2001

Effects of caffeine and high ambient temperature on haemodynamic and body temperature responses to dynamic exercise.

Caffeine can enhance mean arterial blood pressure (MAP) and attenuate forearm blood flow (FBF) and forearm vascular conductance (FVC) during exercise in thermal neutral conditions without altering body temperature. During exercise at higher ambient temperatures, where a greater transfer of heat from the body core to skin would be expected, caffeine-induced attenuation of FBF (i.e. cutaneous blood flow) could attenuate heat dissipation and increase body temperature (T(re)). We hypothesized that during exercise at an ambient temperature of 38 degrees C, caffeine increases MAP, and attenuates FBF and FVC such that T(re) is increased. Eleven caffeine-naive, active men, were studied at rest and during exercise after ingestion of a placebo or 6 mg kg(-1) of caffeine. MAP, heart rate (HR), FBF, FVC, T(re) skin temperature (T(sk)) and venous lactate concentrations (lactate) were assessed sequentially during rest at room temperature, after 45 min of exposure to an ambient temperature of 38 degrees C, and during 35 min of submaximal cycling. Heat exposure caused increases in MAP, FBF, FVC and T(sk) that were not altered by caffeine. HR, T(re), and lactate were unaffected. During exercise, only MAP (95 +/- 2 vs. 102 +/- 2 mmHg), HR (155 +/- 10 vs. 165 +/- 10 beats min(-1)), and lactate (2.0 +/- 0.4 vs. 2.3 +/- 0.4 mmol l(-1)) were increased by caffeine. These data indicate that increases in cutaneous blood flow during exercise in the heat are not reduced by caffeine. This may be because of activation of thermal reflexes that cause cutaneous vasodilation capable of offsetting caffeine-induced reductions in blood flow. Caffeine-induced increases in lactate, MAP and HR during exercise suggest that this drug and high ambient temperatures increase production of muscle metabolites that cause reflex cardiovascular responses.

Adult↗

PubMed1998

Comparison of brain temperature with bladder and rectal temperatures in adults with severe head injury.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to compare brain temperature (Tbr) with conventional indicators of core body temperature (i.e., rectal temperature [Tre] and bladder temperature [Tbl]), in adults with severe head injury. METHODS: The relationships between Tbr and Tbl and between Tbr and Tre are described in terms of differences in temperature in eight patients with severe head injury. INSTRUMENTATION: Brain tissue temperature was measured every minute, with a thermocouple embedded 2 cm from the tip of a ventriculostomy catheter used to measure intracranial pressure. Tbl was measured with a thermistor embedded in a bladder catheter, and Tre was measured with a thermistor in a rectal probe. RESULTS: Tbr was usually greater than Tbl and Tre. The average difference between Tbr and Tbl for each patient ranged from 0.32 to 1.9 degrees C, with standard deviations of the difference ranging from 0.30 to 0.80 degrees C. The average difference between Tbr and Tre for each patient ranged from 0.1 to 2.0 degrees C, with standard deviations of the difference ranging from 0.32 to 1.08 degrees C. In the majority of patients, the differences (Tbr - Tbl and Tbr - Tre) were greater at temperatures outside of the normal temperature range (Tbr < or =36 degrees C and >38 degrees C). CONCLUSION: Tbl and Tre often underrepresent Tbr after traumatic brain injury, particularly when the patient is hypo- or hyperthermic.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1963

TEMPERATURE-GRADIENT INCUBATOR FOR DETERMINING THE TEMPERATURE RANGE OF GROWTH OF MICROORGANISMS.

Elliott, R. Paul (U.S. Department of Agriculture, Albany, Calif.). Temperature-gradient incubator for determining the temperature range of growth of microorganisms. J. Bacteriol. 85:889-894. 1963.-The temperature-gradient incubator consists of an aluminum bar with troughs for media, with controlled temperatures at each end, and with insulation to prevent heat transfer. The resulting linear temperature gradient provides a means for determining minimal or maximal growth temperatures of microorganisms in any desired range and at any desired gradient. The operation of the incubator is unaffected by line-voltage variations or by ambient temperature. Media do not dehydrate seriously even during prolonged periods of operation. The incubator can be used to determine water activity of media by an adjustment to permit partial freezing. Either thermocouples or thermistors may be used to measure temperatures.

Equipment and Supplies↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Comparison of temple temperatures with rectal temperatures in children under two years of age.

We assessed the agreement between rectal and noninvasive temporal artery temperature measurements in infants and children. We also evaluated the temple thermometer as a screening tool for rectal fever in this age group. Finally, we compared the performance of parents with that of nurses in using the temple thermometer. The 95% limits of agreement between the difference in rectal and average temple temperature were -1.03 and +1.52 degrees C. Mean temple temperatures obtained by parents and by nurses were similar (95% limits of agreement, -0.6 degrees C to +0.7 degrees C). A maximum temple temperature cutoff of 37.2 degrees C (99.0 degrees F) distinguished children with rectal fever of > or =38.0 degrees C with 91% sensitivity and 53% specificity. A cutoff of 37.8 degrees C (100.0 degrees F) distinguished moderate rectal fevers (> or =38.5 degrees C) with 97% sensitivity and 84% specificity. A cutoff of 38.3 degrees C (101.0 degrees F) distinguished a high rectal fever (> or =39.0 degrees C) with a sensitivity of 95% and specificity of 95%. In conclusion, temple temperatures do not reliably predict rectal temperatures, but the temple thermometer can be used as an effective screen for clinically important rectal fever in children 3-24 months old. The findings do not support use of temple temperatures to screen young infants for rectal fever > or =38.0 degrees C. Temperatures obtained by parents were comparable to those obtained by nurses.

Body Temperature↗

PubMed2001

Evolutionary adaptation to temperature. VIII. Effects of temperature on growth rate in natural isolates of Escherichia coli and Salmonella enterica from different thermal environments.

Are enteric bacteria specifically adapted to the thermal environment of their hosts? In particular, do the optimal temperatures and thermal niches of the bacterial flora reflect seasonal, geographic, or phylogenetic differences in their hosts' temperatures? We examined these questions by measuring the relationship between the temperature-dependent growth rates of enteric bacteria in a free-living ectothermic host. We sampled two species of enteric bacteria (Escherichia coli and Salmonella enterica) from three natural populations of slider turtles (Trachemys scripta elegans) seasonally over two years. Despite pronounced differences in turtle body temperatures at different seasons and in different locations, we found no evidence that the thermal growth profiles of these bacteria mirrored this variation. Optimal temperatures and maximal growth rates in rich medium were nearly the same for both bacterial species (35-36 degrees C, 2.5 doublings per hour). The thermal niche (defined as the range of temperatures over which 75% of maximal growth rate occurred) was slightly higher for E. coli (28.5-41.0 degrees C) than for S. enterica (27.7-39.8 degrees C), but the niche breadth was about the same for both. We also measured the thermal dependence of growth rate in these same bacterial species isolated from mammalian hosts. Both bacterial species had temperatures of maximal growth and thermal niches that were about 2 degrees C higher than those of their respective conspecifics sampled from turtles; niche breadths were not different. These data suggest that these bacterial species are thermal generalists that do not track fine-scale changes in their thermal environments. Even major differences in body temperatures, as great as those between ectothermic and endothermic hosts, may result in the evolution of rather modest changes in thermal properties.

Adaptation, Physiological↗

PubMed2004

Comparison of body surface temperature measurement and conventional methods for measuring temperature in the mouse.

Temperature is a valuable parameter used to judge wellness of animals in a research setting; therefore, reliable, noninvasive, and inexpensive methods for monitoring temperature are becoming a necessity in research laboratories. A new method for obtaining temperature in mice, the measurement of body surface temperature via an external probe, was compared to two more common methods, the rectal probe and telemetry. The comparisons of the temperature measuring devices were performed in mice made hypothermic via prolonged anesthesia and in mice made hyperthermic by injection of endotoxin. The results demonstrated good correlation between the surface temperature measurements and the temperatures obtained by both telemetry and the rectal probe. The correlations were particularly significant when core body temperatures were below normal. In addition, the surface probe compared favorably with the other methods with regard to animal stress, observed complications, and initial cost. These results suggest that the surface probe could provide an efficient means for obtaining valuable physiological data and determining humane endpoints.

Animals↗

PubMed1985

Hot air breathing: effects of elevated wet bulb temperatures on tissue temperatures of the mouth.

Six healthy young men breathed room air or one of nine hot humid air conditions on separate days for one hour while walking on a treadmill (40% VO2 max). Inspired wet bulb temperatures ranged from 18.9 (room air) to 49.3 degrees C. Tissue temperatures in the mouth were measured by means of thermocouples placed on the tongue and hard palate. Analysis of variance on repeated measures showed significant increases in both tongue and hard palate tissue temperatures (p less than 0.001) as a result of increasing wet bulb temperatures; however, core temperature and heart rate were not affected (p greater than 0.05). Ratings of subjective discomfort increased proportionally with increases in wet bulb temperature of the inspired air. It was concluded that wet bulb temperature of inspired air is a valuable measure to uses in studying temperature responses of mouth tissues when inhaling hot humid air, particularly when investigating human tolerance levels in order to recommend federal standards for the design of breathing apparatus.

Adult↗

PubMed1985

Correlation of noninvasive surface temperature measurement with rectal temperature in swine.

Skin and rectal temperature measurements were taken on 15 crossbred sows and gilts (225 kg) during the last 5 days of prepartum period and compared with those recorded in the first 8 days after parturition. The correlation of skin and rectal temperature values was not good during either period, although an increased correlation was noted in the postparturient period. The rectal temperature significantly (P less than 0.05) increased in the postparturient period, but the mean surface temperature was unchanged. This would indicate a decreased blood flow to the surface, since an equivalent blood flow to the surface after a rectal temperature increase would result in a concomitant mean surface temperature increase. The decreased flow to the surface of the animal was selective, since a significant (P less than 0.05) decrease in surface temperature was noted at the tailhead, perineum, vulva, mammae-caudal, and eye, whereas the surface temperature of the mammae-cranial and mammae-middle was significantly (P less than 0.05) increased.

Animals↗

PubMed1982

Equations for predicting diver regional skin temperatures as a function of mean skin temperature.

A series of linear algebraic equations have been derived from those of Kerslake (Flying Personnel Research Committee Memo 213, R.A.F. Institute of Aviation Medicine, 1964) for predicting the regional skin temperatures of a quasi-euthermic diver having pronounced vasoconstriction. The equations were developed by numerically analyzing twelve regional skin temperatures recorded from five resting subjects exposed to a hyperbaric chamber environment of 20 degrees C, 95% helium, and 5% oxygen pressurized to the equivalent of 200 msw (650 fsw). The independent variable of the basic correlation is an arbitrarily defined mean skin temperature; the empirical equations were developed for the purpose of assisting a designer in estimating regional supplementary heating requirements for a diver wearing a thermal protection garment of known composition. The developed equations were authenticated by comparing the predicted normalized regional temperature with the respective experimental normalized temperature obtained from several set of physiological data collected during the evaluation of the Naval Coastal System Center's diver thermal protecting garment (DTP). The results of these comparisons of nondimensionalized temperatures indicated that the derived correlations should accurately predict the skin temperature of the principal regions as a function of mean skin temperature with a normal error of no more than 15%.

Atmospheric Pressure↗

PubMed2004

Absence of the cholecystokinin-A receptor deteriorates homeostasis of body temperature in response to changes in ambient temperature.

The circadian rhythm of the body core temperature (T(c)) and the effects of changes in ambient temperatures on the homeostasis of T(c) in Otsuka Long Evans Tokushima Fatty (OLETF) rats, which are naturally occurring cholecystokinin (CCK)-A receptor (CCK-AR) gene knockout (-/-) rats, were examined. In addition, the peripheral responses to warming or cooling of the preoptic and anterior hypothalamic region (PO/AH) were determined. The circadian rhythm of T(c) in OLETF rats was similar to that in Long-Evans Tokushima (LETO) rats; this rhythm was characterized by a higher T(c) during the dark period and a lower T(c) during the light period. When the ambient temperature was changed within the limits of 0 degrees C to 30 degrees C, the changes in T(c) of LETO rats were associated with the changes in ambient temperature, whereas those in OLETF rats were dissociated from the temperature changes. The OLETF rats showed a large hysteresis. The peripheral responses to warming or cooling of PO/AH, including shivering of the neck muscle and changes in skin temperature of the tail and footpad, were similar in OLETF and LETO rats. To confirm the role of CCK-AR in the regulation of body temperature, the values of T(c) in the CCK-AR(-/-) mice were compared with those in CCK-B receptor (CCK-BR) (-/-), CCK-AR(-/-)BR(-/-), and wild-type mice. In the mice, the circadian rhythms of T(c) were the same, regardless of the genotype. Mice without CCK-AR showed larger hysteresis than mice with CCK-AR. From these results, we conclude that the lack of CCK-AR causes homeostasis of T(c) in rats and mice to deteriorate.

Animals↗

PubMed2001

The ice nucleation temperature determines the primary drying rate of lyophilization for samples frozen on a temperature-controlled shelf.

The objective of this study was to determine the influence of ice nucleation temperature on the primary drying rate during lyophilization for samples in vials that were frozen on a lyophilizer shelf. Aqueous solutions of 10% (w/v) hydroxyethyl starch were frozen in vials with externally mounted thermocouples and then partially lyophilized to determine the primary drying rate. Low- and high-particulate-containing samples, ice-nucleating additives silver iodide and Pseudomonas syringae, and other methods were used to obtain a wide range of nucleation temperatures. In cases where the supercooling exceeded 5 degrees C, freezing took place in the following three steps: (1) primary nucleation, (2) secondary nucleation encompassing the entire liquid volume, and (3) final solidification. The primary drying rate was dependent on the ice nucleation temperature, which is stochastic in nature but is affected by particulate content and the presence of ice nucleators. Sample cooling rates of 0.05 to 1 degrees C/min had no effect on nucleation temperatures and drying rate. We found that the ice nucleation temperature is the primary determinant of the primary drying rate. However, the nucleation temperature is not under direct control, and its stochastic nature and sensitivity to difficult-to-control parameters result in drying rate heterogeneity. Nucleation temperature heterogeneity may also result in variation in other morphology-related parameters such as surface area and secondary drying rate. Overall, these results document that factors such as particulate content and vial condition, which influence ice nucleation temperature, must be carefully controlled to avoid, for example, lot-to-lot variability during cGMP production. In addition, if these factors are not controlled and/or are inadvertently changed during process development and scaleup, a lyophilization cycle that was successful on the research scale may fail during large-scale production.

Freeze Drying↗

PubMed2004

Temperature- and glass transition temperature-dependence of bimolecular reaction rates in lyophilized formulations described by the Adam-Gibbs-Vogel equation.

Bimolecular reaction rates in lyophilized aspirin-sulfadiazine formulations containing poly(vinylpyrrolidone), dextran, and isomalto-oligomers of different molecular weights were determined in the presence of various water contents, and their temperature- and glass transition temperature (Tg)-dependence was compared with that of structural relaxation time (tau calculated according to the Adam-Gibbs-Vogel equation, in order to understand how chemical degradation rates of drugs in lyophilized formulations are affected by molecular mobility. The rate of acetyl transfer in poly(vinylpyrrolidone) K30 and dextran 40k formulations with a constant Tg, observed at various temperatures, exhibited a temperature dependence similar to that of tau at temperatures below Tg. Furthermore, the rates of acetyl transfer and the Maillard reaction in formulations containing alpha-glucose polymers and oligomers increased, as the Tg of formulations decreased, either associated with decreases in molecular weight of excipient or with increases in water content. The observed Tg dependence was similar to that of tau in the range of Tg higher than the experimental temperature. The results suggest a possibility that bimolecular reaction rate at temperatures below Tg can be predicted from that observed at the Tg on the basis of temperature dependence of structural relaxation time in amorphous systems, if the degradation rate is proportional to the diffusion rate of reacting compounds.

Algorithms↗

PubMed1992

Cultured human skin fibroblasts modify their plasma membrane lipid composition and fluidity according to growth temperature suggesting homeoviscous adaptation at hypothermic (30 degrees C) but not at hyperthermic (40 degrees C) temperatures.

Mammalian cell metabolism is responding to changes in temperature. Body temperature is regulated around 37 degrees C, but temperatures of exposed skin areas may vary between 20 degrees C and 40 degrees C for extended periods of time without apparent disturbance of adequate cellular functions. Cellular membrane functions are depending from temperatures but also from their lipid environment, which is a major component of membrane fluidity. Temperature-induced changes of membrane fluidity may be counterbalanced by adaptive modification of membrane lipids. Temperature-dependent changes of whole cell- and of purified membrane lipids and possible homeoviscous adaptation of membrane fluidity have been studied in human skin fibroblasts cultured at 30 degrees C, 37 degrees C, and 40 degrees C for ten days. Membrane anisotropy was measured by polarized fluorescence spectroscopy using TMA-DPH for superficial and DPH for deeper membrane layers. Human fibroblasts were able to adapt themselves to hypothermic temperatures (30 degrees C) by modifying the fluidity of the deeper apolar regions of the plasma membranes as reported by changes of fluorescence anisotropy due to appropriate changes of their plasma membrane lipid composition. This could not be shown for the whole cells. At 40 degrees C growth temperature, adaptive changes of the membrane lipid composition, except for some changes in fatty acid compositions, were not seen. Independent from the changes of the membrane lipid composition, the fluorescence anisotropy of the more superficial membrane layers (TMA-DPH) increased in cells growing at 30 degrees C and decreased in cells growing at 40 degrees C.

Adaptation, Physiological↗

PubMed1992

Temperature-sensitivity of the replication of rabies virus (HEP-flury strain) in BHK-21 cells. I. Alteration of viral RNA synthesis at the elevated temperature.

We investigated the nature of temperature sensitivity of the HEP strain of rabies virus. After initial incubation for appropriate period (more than 12 hr) at the permissive temperature (36-37 degrees), incubation temperature of the rabies virus infected cultures was shifted to a nonpermissive temperature (39.5-40.5 degrees). Upon the upshift, virion production was ceased, but the rate of viral RNA synthesis was greatly increased and reached almost 10 times that of 36 degrees-infection within 8-10 hr, and then the activity quickly decreased together with the onset of accelerated CPE. Little or no 42S genome-sized RNA was produced at the elevated temperature, and almost all RNAs produced in large amounts seemed to be viral mRNAs and were shown to be functional in t he cell-free translation system. Consistent with these observations, the viral ribonucleoprotein complex isolated from the temperature-upshifted culture was associated with relatively large amounts of small sized RNAs, which might reflect their increased transcriptive activity. These observations suggest that the viral RNA polymerase itself is not temperature-sensitive and the temperature-induced defect may reside in the regulatory factor which plays a role in turning on the synthesis of viral genome-sized RNA.

Cell Line↗

PubMed1994

Glutaraldehyde crosslinking of collagen: effects of time, temperature, concentration and presoaking as measured by shrinkage temperature.

Experiments were carried out to study the effect on the degree of crosslinking of: (a) short term (1 or 5 min) high (50 degrees C) temperature glutaraldehyde (GA) fixation of native collagen membrane, (b) a combination of GA presoaking at low temperature [0 degree C or room temperature (rt)] followed by short time (< 3 min) heating of synthetic collagen fleece in a multilayer diffusion model. As a measure for the degree of crosslinking the shrinkage temperature (Ts) was determined. Short time (1 or 5 min) high temperature (50 degrees C) fixation using 0.1% GA solution caused the shrinkage temperature to increase to 80% and 93% respectively, of the maximum attainable Ts employing GA crosslinking (ca 91 degrees C). Fixation with 0.01% GA for 5 min at 50 degrees C appeared equally as effective as 1 min with 0.1% GA. Although an elevated fixation temperature (from rt to 45 degrees C) was found to produce a substantial increase in Ts of the collagen sheets, a homogeneous distribution of cross links was not obtained by this method. Presoaking the samples at rt (1 h) or at 0 degree C (3 h) with subsequent short time heating to 45 degrees C caused an almost equal rise in shrinkage temperature in Ts throughout the collagen samples.

Animals↗