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PubMed1990

Intra-individual variation in energy intake in adult males in training.

Variability of energy intake was examined using data for 73 adult males (17-21 yr) for two different levels of training. The subjects were put on hard physical training costing about 1850 kcal/d (phase I: heavy activity) for the first five months and trades' training involving light physical work equivalent to 900 kcal/d (phase II: moderate activity) in the next five months. All the subjects were observed for five consecutive days of their training for dietary intake, weight, and daily activity pattern in the middle of each activity level. A subsample of nine subjects was also surveyed for five consecutive days every second month during the entire training period to get an estimate of week to week variation within subjects. 'Weigh as you eat' method in combination with proximate analysis was used to determine the habitual energy intake of the subjects. Analysis of variance for intake data showed that a substantial part (55 to 60%) of the total variance was contributed by intra-individual variation. Inter subject variation was found to have a cv of 10 per cent in both the levels of activity. Moreover data of the subsample indicated that variation in mean intake from week to week was significantly larger than the daily variance suggesting nonrandomness of daily energy intake.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1993

Measurements of total energy expenditure provide insights into the validity of dietary measurements of energy intake.

The quantification of errors inherent in methods of measuring dietary intake has been handicapped by the absence of independent markers for testing their validity. The doubly labeled water technique permits a precise measure of energy expenditure in free-living persons. Because energy expenditure must equal energy intake in populations in energy balance, this technique may be used to validate the assessment of energy intake. A series of studies demonstrated good agreement between mean energy intake and mean energy expenditure when food intake was recorded by observers or when it was self-reported by normal-weight, self-selected, highly motivated volunteer subjects using weighed records. However, in randomly recruited men and women, energy intake by weighed records was 82% and 81%, of energy expenditure, respectively, indicating underestimation of habitual intake. Men and women in the lowest third of reported intake recorded energy expenditure of only 69% and 61%, respectively. Reported intake of obese and previously obese women was only 73% and 64% of expenditure, whether measured by weighed record or by diet history, confirming suspicions that these subjects misrepresented their intake. Acceptable weighed records were obtained from 7- and 9-year-olds whereas 15- and 18-year-olds underestimated intake. Diet histories taken from the same children tended to overestimate intake. These studies suggest that, ideally, all dietary studies should include independent measures of validity.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2002

Estimation of energy intake in clinical practice: a comparison between a food record protocol and a precoded food record book.

The aim of this study was to compare energy intake estimated from a clinical food record protocol (CFRP) with that from a precoded food record book (PFRB) as reference method. Food and fluid consumption were recorded in 10 older patients using a CFRP in parallel with a PFRB during a 6-day period. The results showed that there were no significant differences in mean energy intake estimated from the CFRP as compared with that estimated from the PFRB. The correlation coefficient between the calculated daily energy intake from the CFRP and PFRB was 0.96. The differences in energy intake (kcal/day) between the CFRP and PFRB, plotted against their mean value for 10 patients, showed that results were within the limits of agreement (mean +/- 2SD) for nine patients. The differences in each day's energy intake between the two methods plotted against their mean value showed that 97% of the estimated daily energy intake was within the limits of agreement. The weighted kappa between the two methods was 0.76. The CFRP would seem to be acceptable for the estimation of mean energy intake in the hospital setting.

Aged↗

PubMed2006

The influence of age and body mass index on relative accuracy of energy intake among Japanese adults.

OBJECTIVE: To examine relationships between the ratio of energy intake to basal metabolic rate (EI/BMR) and age and body mass index (BMI) among Japanese adults. DESIGN: Energy intake was assessed by 4-day semi-weighed diet records in each of four seasons (16 days in total). The EI/BMR ratio was calculated from reported energy intake and estimated basal metabolic rate as an indicator of reporting accuracy. SETTING: Residents in three areas in Japan, namely Osaka (urban), Nagano (rural inland) and Tottori (rural coastal). SUBJECTS: One hundred and eighty-three healthy Japanese men and women aged > or =30 years. RESULTS: The oldest age group (> or =60 years) had higher EI/BMR values than the youngest age group (30-39 years) in both sexes (1.74 vs. 1.37 for men; 1.65 vs. 1.43 for women). In multiple regression analyses, age correlated positively (partial correlation coefficient, beta = 0.012, P < 0.001 for men; beta = 0.011, P < 0.001 for women) and BMI correlated negatively (beta = -0.031, P < 0.001 for men; beta = -0.025, P < 0.01 for women) with EI/BMR. CONCLUSION: Age and BMI may influence the relative accuracy of energy intake among Japanese adults.

Adult↗

PubMed1994

Weaning-food viscosity and energy density: their effects on ad libitum consumption and energy intakes in Jamaican children.

The effects of weaning-food viscosity and energy density on consumption and energy intake were determined in 15 non-breast-fed Jamaican children aged 7-15 mo under standardized conditions. We tested whether feeding thick, energy-dense porridge four times daily resulted in increased energy intakes and whether amylase treatment to reduce viscosity offered any advantage. When a traditional liquid, low-density porridge (2.15 kJ/g) was fed, the mean (+/- SD) daily consumption was 139 +/- 25 g/kg and the mean daily energy intake was 296 +/- 54 kJ/kg. When a semisolid high-density porridge (4.09 kJ/g) was fed, consumption was significantly lower (98 +/- 21 g/kg) but the daily energy intake was significantly higher--402 +/- 85 kJ/kg (P < 0.001). Amylase treatment of the thick energy-dense porridge did not increase intakes further. Meal duration for the thick porridge (12.9 +/- 4.0 min) was significantly longer than that for the low-density (7.4 +/- 2.6 min) or amylase-treated (6.4 +/- 1.8 min) porridges.

Amylases↗

PubMed2004

Cumulative dietary energy intake determines the onset of puberty in female rats.

Laboratory animal diets for studies to determine the endocrine-disrupting potential of chemicals are under scrutiny because they can affect both assay control values and assay sensitivity. Although phytoestrogen content is important, we have previously shown that a phytoestrogen-rich diet and a phytoestrogen-free diet were equally uterotrophic to rats and advanced vaginal opening (VO) when compared with the standard diet RM1. Abolition of the effects by the gonadotrophin-releasing hormone antagonist Antarelix indicated that these effects were mediated through the hypothalamus-pituitary-reproductive organ axis. In the present study, we investigated the relationship between cumulative energy intake and sexual maturation in female rats. Infant formula (IF) at different concentrations and synthetic diets, with a wide range of metabolizable energy (ME) values, were used to modulate energy intake. Increasing energy intake was associated with an increase in uterine weight (absolute and adjusted for body weight) for both IF and the synthetic diets. In both cases, the increased uterine weight was directly proportional to energy intake. Body weight was unaffected by IF consumption but, in the case of the diets, was increased proportionally with energy consumption. Antarelix abolished the uterine weight increases with both formula and the diets, whereas body weight was unaffected. The mean day of VO was also advanced by high-ME diets and IF, whereas body weight at VO was unaffected. VO occurred at an energy intake of approximately 2,300 kJ/rat determined by measuring total food intake from weaning to VO, indicating that this cumulative energy intake was the trigger for puberty. ME is therefore a critical factor in the choice of diets for endocrine disruption studies.

Animal Feed↗

PubMed1999

Energy intake and utilization vary during development in rats.

Energy intake, utilization, and partitioning were determined in male Wistar rats from 25 to 180 d of age. Serum free triiodothyronine, leptin, and free fatty acid concentrations were also measured. Energy balance measurements allowed us to identify a period from 25 to 90 d, characterized by a rapid body growth rate and another from 90 to 180 d, during which body growth rate slowed. From 25 to 180 d, we found decreases in daily energy intake and expenditure, which were faster before 90 d. The first period was characterized by storage of lipid and protein. In the second period, protein deposition approached zero and the excess of ingested energy was entirely stored as fat, so that age-associated obesity began to develop. The inability of rats to maintain a stable body weight after the cessation of growth of lean body mass is not due to decreased resting metabolism but rather to a partial leptin resistance.

Adipose Tissue↗

PubMed1992

Influence of endurance training on energy intake, norepinephrine kinetics, and metabolic rate in older individuals.

The role of physical activity in the regulation of energy intake in older persons is presently unclear. We therefore examined the influence of endurance training on voluntary energy intake and the associated changes in resting metabolic rate (RMR) and norepinephrine (NE) kinetics in seven healthy (six men, one woman) older individuals (69.4 +/- 2.2 years) under supervised living conditions. Energy intake was measured by covert assessment in a clinical research environment during: (1) a 10-day inpatient control period (no exercise); (2) a 10-day light exercise period (150 kcal per session, 3 times/wk); and (3) a 10-day moderate exercise period (300 kcal per session, 3 times/wk). RMR was determined after all three periods, and NE kinetics were assessed before and after training by infusions of tritiated NE ([3H]-NE). No significant change in energy intake was found between the control (2,378 +/- 130 kcal/d) and light exercise (2,449 +/- 104 kcal/d) periods, whereas energy intake increased 17% (P less than .01) during moderate exercise (2,785 +/- 161 kcal/d). Changes in RMR paralleled those of energy intake, as no differences were noted in RMR after control (1.03 +/- 0.12 kcal/min) and light exercise periods (1.04 +/- 0.12 kcal/min), but RMR increased 9% (1.13 +/- 0.14 kcal/min, P less than .01) after moderate endurance training, despite no changes in body composition.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Aged↗

PubMed1991

Energy requirements of a postobese man reporting a low energy intake at weight maintenance.

Three experiments were performed to test the validity of the low reported energy intake of weight maintenance in a postobese man. In the first experiment the subject reported a mean energy intake of 8008 kJ/d during 16 d and he maintained a stable body weight. This finding was not reproduced in the second experiment, which consisted of a 6-d inpatient study during which the subject was confined to a whole-body calorimeter for 5 d. Indeed, he lost weight when fed a controlled energy intake of 7950 kJ/d. Moreover, this experiment showed that direct and indirect calorimetry provided comparable energy-expenditure measurements during this period. Finally, when the subject was refed a controlled energy intake of 7950 kJ/d for 21 d, body weight and fat losses were observed. Therefore, these observations do not support the validity of the low energy intake that may be reported by people predisposed to obesity.

Body Weight↗

PubMed2003

Relation between appetite ratings before and after a standard meal and estimates of daily energy intake in obese and reduced obese individuals.

The aim of the present study was to relate appetite ratings before and after a standard breakfast to estimates of daily energy intake, before and after weight loss obese men and women. Nineteen obese subjects (9 men and 10 women) took part in a 15-week drug-based weight-loss program coupled to energy intake restriction. Body weight and body composition were significantly decreased in men and women. Both before and after the weight loss program, desire to eat, hunger, fullness and prospective food consumption (PFC) were measured after an overnight fast and at 10-min intervals in the hour following the ingestion of a standardized breakfast. Energy intakes were also measured and reported before and after weight loss. Fasting desire to eat and postprandial area under the curve (AUC) for hunger were significantly increased (p<0.05) after the intervention. No association was observed between measured or reported energy intakes and appetite ratings before weight loss in either men or women. Reported energy intake was not associated with appetite sensations after weight loss either. In contrast, measured energy intake was significantly associated with postprandial AUC for fullness (r=-0.90, p<0.01) and PFC (r=0.80, p<0.01) in men at the end of the program. In stepwise multiple regression analysis, only postprandial AUC for PFC contributed independently to the variance of measured energy intake after weight loss (r(2)=0.60, p=0.01). This study did not show consistent associations between averaged appetite ratings after a meal and daily energy intake, either before or after weight loss.

Adult↗

PubMed1999

Energy intake and prostate tumor growth, angiogenesis, and vascular endothelial growth factor expression.

BACKGROUND: A sedentary lifestyle coupled with excessive energy intake is speculated to be a factor associated with increased incidence of prostate cancer. We have investigated the effects of energy intake on prostate tumor growth in experimental animals. METHODS: Two transplantable prostate tumor models, i.e., the androgen-dependent Dunning R3327-H adenocarcinoma in rats and the androgen-sensitive LNCaP human carcinoma in severe combined immunodeficient mice, were studied. R3327-H tumor growth and relevant tumor biomarkers (proliferation index, apoptosis [programmed cell death], microvessel density, and vascular endothelial growth factor [VEGF] expression) were compared in ad libitum fed control rats, ad libitum fed castrated rats, and groups restricted in energy intake by 20% or 40%. A second set of experiments involving both tumor models examined tumor growth in ad libitum fed rats or in animals whose energy intake was restricted by 30% using three different methods, i.e., total diet restriction, carbohydrate restriction, or lipid restriction. All P values are two-sided. RESULTS: R3327-H tumors were smaller in energy-restricted or castrated rats than in control rats (P<.001). Tumors from energy-restricted rats exhibited changes in tumor architecture characterized by increased stroma and more homogeneous and smaller glands. In castrated rats, the tumor proliferation index was reduced (P<.0001), whereas apoptosis was increased in both energy-restricted (P<.001) and castrated (P<.001) rats. Tumor microvessel density and VEGF expression were reduced by energy restriction and castration (P<.003 versus control). Restriction of energy intake by reduction of carbohydrate intake, lipid intake, or total diet produced a similar inhibition of growth of R3327-H or LNCaP tumors. These effects were associated with reduced circulating insulin-like growth factor-I. CONCLUSIONS: Our observations are consistent with the hypothesis that energy restriction reduces prostate tumor growth by inhibiting tumor angiogenesis. Furthermore, dietary fat concentration does not influence prostate tumor growth when energy intake is reduced.

Adenocarcinoma↗

PubMed2005

Correlates of under- and over-reporting of energy intake in Tehranians: body mass index and lifestyle-related factors.

Under- and over-reporting of energy intake are problems in dietary intake assessment. This study was conducted to assess the correlates of under- and over-reporting of energy intake in Tehranians. Dietary data on 947 participants (415 males and 532 females) of the Tehran Lipid and Glucose Study was collected by trained interviewers using two 24-hour recalls. Weight and height were measured by digital scale and tape measure according to standard protocols and recorded to the nearest 100 g and 1cm, respectively. Under-, normal- and over-reporting of energy intake was defined as ratio of energy intake to basal metabolic rate (EI:BMR) <1.35, 1.35-2.39 and >or = 2.4, respectively. Mean +/- SD of age was 37.3 +/-14.6 and 32.9 +/-13.6 years for men and women, respectively. Men had higher EI:BMR than women (1.72 +/-0.44 vs 1.27 +/-0.44, P<0.001). EI and EI:BMR was highest in the youngest age groups in both sexes. The prevalences of under- and over-reporting were 31% and 5%, respectively. Fewer men than women underreported EI (19% vs 40%, P<0.001). The fraction of over-reporters was significantly higher in men than women (7% vs 3%, P<0.05). EI:BMR decreased with age. Under-reporters were older and had higher BMI than normal-reporters, but their educational level did not differ significantly. Over-reporters were younger and had lower BMI than normal-reporters, but their educational levels did not differ significantly. Most over-reporters had normal BMI. Smoking was more prevalent in over-reporters than in the normal-reporters (28% vs 19% in men and 6% vs 1% in women, P<0.01). The results showed a high prevalence of misreporting of energy intake in Tehran. This phenomenon is related to age, obesity and smoking habits.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1994

The impact of ractopamine, energy intake, and dietary fat on finisher pig growth performance and carcass merit.

An experiment was conducted to determine the effect of ractopamine, energy intake, dietary fat level, and sex on performance and carcass composition in finishing pigs. Three hundred six barrows and gilts were used in a factorial arrangement of treatments replicated over three seasons. Treatments consisted of two ractopamine levels (0 vs 44.7 mg/d), two sexes (barrows and gilts), two levels of fat addition (0 vs 5% added fat), and four energy intake levels (8.3, 8.9, 9.5, and 10.1 Mcal of ME/d for barrows and 7.7, 8.3, 8.9, and 9.5 Mcal of ME/d for gilts). Diets were formulated to maintain an equal lysine (28.5 g/d) intake at each feeding level through cornstarch dilution of the basal (7.7 Mcal of ME/d) diets. Pigs were fed daily based on a standard feed intake curve and prior weekly body weights. At slaughter (104 kg), carcass measurements and TOBEC HA-1 scanner measurements were recorded. Dietary fat addition improved live weight and lean efficiency (grams of carcass lean gain/kilogram of feed, P < .05). Dietary fat addition did not affect growth rate or carcass composition. Increasing energy intake resulted in a linear increase in average daily gain for both barrows and gilts (P < .01). Dietary ractopamine influenced the response of lean tissue accretion, lean tissue accretion efficiency, and fat tissue accretion to energy intake. Pigs with no added ractopamine demonstrated increased lean tissue accretion and improved efficiency and decreased fat tissue accretion with increasing energy intake (up to 9.5 Mcal of ME intake for barrows and 8.9 Mcal of ME intake for gilts). In contrast, pigs with added ractopamine did not respond to increasing energy intake and demonstrated increased fat tissue accretion with increasing energy intake. The response to ractopamine for growth was greatest from d 6 to 22 on test or during the test gain period of 7 to 18 kg. After d 22, the response of ractopamine declined linearly. These results indicate that ractopamine increases growth rapidly at the onset of feeding until a plateau is reached, after which there is a linear decline in growth response.

Adipose Tissue↗

PubMed1993

Effect of dietary protein and energy intakes on whole-body protein turnover and its contribution to heat production in chicks.

A factorial 3 x 3 experiment was conducted with chicks to investigate the effect of manipulating crude protein (N x 6.25) intake (CPI) and metabolizable energy intake (MEI) simultaneously, in the range low to high (including adequate) levels with regard to the respective requirements, on whole-body protein turnover and its contribution to total heat production. The fractional rate of whole-body protein synthesis was increased curvilinearly by increasing MEI or CPI from low to high levels. In terms of absolute rates whole-body protein synthesis was enhanced by increasing MEI from low to adequate levels, the effect being greater at adequate and high CPI than at low CPI. The effect of varying CPI and MEI on whole-body protein degradation was similar, but less sensitive, to that on whole-body protein synthesis. Increasing MEI from low to high levels elevated total heat production at all CPI levels. There were no interactive effects of varying CPI and MEI on the contribution of whole-body protein synthesis to total heat production, and in general the contribution increased with increasing CPI and decreased with increasing MEI. The contribution of whole-body protein synthesis to total heat production fell within a small range from 11.2 to 16.5%.

Animals↗

PubMed2002

Energy intake and resting metabolic rate in preschool Jamaican children with homozygous sickle cell disease.

BACKGROUND: A relative energy deficiency consequent to a high resting metabolic rate (RMR) may contribute to growth impairment in persons with homozygous (SS genotype) sickle cell disease (SCD). The growth deficit in SCD emerges at an early age, but few studies have addressed the adequacy of energy intake relative to RMR in young children. OBJECTIVE: Our objective was to test the hypothesis that energy intake relative to RMR is lower in children with SCD than in control subjects. DESIGN: The dietary intake of 41 children with SCD and 31 control subjects with a normal hemoglobin genotype (AA) aged 3-6 y was assessed by weighing all food consumed during 3 d. RMR was determined with the use of indirect calorimetry. RESULTS: The RMR in the children with SCD ( +/- SD: 5.47 +/- 0.93 MJ/d) was higher than that in the control subjects (5.19 +/- 1.3 MJ/d) after adjustment for sex and weight (P = 0.04). Energy intake did not differ significantly between the 2 genotype groups. The ratio of energy intake to RMR was lower in the children with SCD ( +/- SD: 1.13 +/- 0.33) than in the control subjects (1.35 +/- 0.38) after adjustment for sex and weight (P = 0.005). CONCLUSIONS: Prepubertal children with SCD fail to compensate for their higher RMR by increasing their energy intake. This observation is consistent with a hypothesis of a relative energy deficiency in SCD.

Anemia, Sickle Cell↗

PubMed2002

Energy intake and expenditure of obese and non-obese urban Bangladeshi children.

A case control study was conducted in Dhaka city to measure the energy intake and expenditure among 220 obese children of 4-10 years age group and 220 randomly selected age and sex matched controls. A 24 hour dietary recall was used to assess the energy intake. Data on energy expenditure was obtained by 24 hour physical activity recall. The mean energy intake of obese children (2056 +/- 751 kcal/d) was found to be significantly higher (P<0.001) compared to the non obese (1508 +/- 529 kcal/d). No sex difference was found in both obese and non obese groups. Mean energy expenditure of the obese children (1868 +/- 313 kcal/d vs 1495 +/- 200 kcal/d) was significantly higher than the non-obese (P<0.001). Of the obese, boys expended more energy than the girls (P=0.01). Furthermore, physical activity level (1.40 +/- 0.09 vs 1.35 +/- 0.14) was significantly higher among the non obese than their obese counterpart (P<0.001). However, energy balance was significantly higher among the obese (P<0.001). Dose response of energy balance shows the estimated relative risk of obesity increases with higher level of energy balance (P<0.001). The findings of this study revealed that energy balance as a result of higher energy intake and lower energy expenditure was one of the important risk factors for the development of obesity among the children of Dhaka city. Thus, appropriate interventions like behavioural change regarding food habits and physical activities are recommended.

Bangladesh↗

PubMed1978

The effect of dietary carbohydrate:fat ratio on energy intake by adult women.

The effect of the dietary carbohydrate:fat (C:F) ratio on the spontaneous energy intake by healthy adults was investigated by comparing a high-carbohydrate diet (fat 24%, carbohydrate 58%, protein 18% of energy) and a high-fat diet (fat 47%, carbohydrate 35%, protein 18% of energy) in a 2 X 2 week cross-over design. Subjects were 22 healthy nuns in a Trappist convent with very regular activities. The diets consisted of combinations of liquid formula (75%) and standardized snacks (25%). The difference in C:F ratio was concealed: energy density, taste and appearance were similar. Energy consumption was recorded continuously. The mean daily energy intakes remained constant: 8276 kJ (1978 kcal). The difference in mean daily energy intake between diets was 73 kJ +/- 180 (SEM). Small changes in body weight were observed, but these are argued not to indicate definitive effects. It is concluded that changing the C:F ratio within commonly occurring ranges does not influence the spontaneous energy intake of healthy adults. The composition of the dietary fat was kept constant. Under practical conditions a change in the C:F ratio will also induce a change in the fatty acid composition of the diet, which might affect the energy intake regulation. Other experiments are required to see whether the C:F ratio can affect body composition or other physiological parameters in the long run.

Body Composition↗

PubMed1999

Energy density but not fat content of foods affected energy intake in lean and obese women.

BACKGROUND: Studies have shown that energy intake increases when both the fat content and energy density of the entire diet increases. When the fat content and energy density vary independently of one another, however, energy density, but not fat content, influences intake. OBJECTIVE: The present study examined whether energy intake in lean and obese women is affected when either the energy density or the fat content of a portion of the diet is manipulated and palatability is held constant. DESIGN: In a within-subjects design, 17 lean and 17 obese women consumed meals in the laboratory for four, 4-d test periods. In 3 of these test periods the energy density (4.4 and 6.7 kJ/g) or the fat content (16% and 36% of energy) of compulsory entrees representing 50% of each subject's usual energy intake was manipulated. Additional self-selected foods were consumed ad libitum at meals and as snacks. RESULTS: There were no systematic differences in palatability of the manipulated foods across conditions. Obese and lean participants responded similarly to the dietary manipulations. Intake of self-selected foods at meals was reduced significantly by 16% for both lean and obese subjects in the low- compared with the high-energy-density condition. The fat content of the compulsory foods had no significant effect on energy intake. Ratings of hunger did not differ between diets. CONCLUSION: These results indicate that when a portion of the diet was manipulated, the energy density, but not the fat content, of the foods affected total energy intake at meals in both lean and obese women.

Adolescent↗