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PubMed2003

[Nutrition and health--potential health benefits and risks of vegetarianism and limited consumption of meat in the Netherlands].

In the latest Dutch national food consumption survey (1998) just over 1% of subjects (about 150,000 persons) claimed to be vegetarians; however, a much larger group (6% or approximately 1 million persons) ate meat < or = once a week. Vegetarianism can be subdivided into lacto-vegetarianism (a diet without meat and fish) and veganism (a diet without any animal foods whatsoever, including dairy products and eggs). A recent meta-analysis showed that vegetarians had a lower mortality from ischaemic heart disease than omniovorous subjects; however, cancer mortality and total mortality did not differ. Although a high consumption of red meat, which is rich in haeme iron and saturated fat, may increase the risk of cardiovascular disease and some types of cancer, this does not apply to white meat and fish. In fact, the most important protective effect would seem to be derived from the consumption of unrefined vegetable products (whole-grain cereals, vegetables, fruits, nuts and legumes) and fish. In other words, a prudent, omnivorous diet with moderate amounts of animal products, in which red meat is partly replaced by white meat and fish (especially fatty fish), together with the consumption of ample amounts of unrefined vegetable products, is thought to be just as protective as a vegetarian diet. On the other hand, the omission of meat and fish from the diet increases the risk of nutritional deficiencies. A vegan diet, in particular, leads to a strongly increased risk of deficiencies of vitamin B12, vitamin B2 and several minerals, such as calcium, iron and zinc. However, even a lacto-vegetarian diet produces an increased risk of deficiencies of vitamin B12 and possibly certain minerals, such as iron. Data from the latest Dutch food consumption survey suggest that 5-10% of all inhabitants of the Netherlands (up to 1 million persons) actually have a vitamin B12 intake below recommended daily levels. In medical practice, the possibility of vitamin B12 deficiency in subjects consuming meat or fish < or = once a week deserves serious consideration. In case of doubt, evaluation is indicated using sensitive and specific deficiency markers such as the levels of methylmalonic acid in plasma or urine. Alternative dietary sources of vitamin B12 instead of meat are fish (especially fatty fish is a good source of vitamin B12), or a vitamin-B12-supplement.

Cardiovascular Diseases↗

PubMed2006

The effect of meat consumption on body odor attractiveness.

Axillary body odor is individually specific and potentially a rich source of information about its producer. Odor individuality partly results from genetic individuality, but the influence of ecological factors such as eating habits are another main source of odor variability. However, we know very little about how particular dietary components shape our body odor. Here we tested the effect of red meat consumption on body odor attractiveness. We used a balanced within-subject experimental design. Seventeen male odor donors were on "meat" or "nonmeat" diet for 2 weeks wearing axillary pads to collect body odor during the final 24 h of the diet. Fresh odor samples were assessed for their pleasantness, attractiveness, masculinity, and intensity by 30 women not using hormonal contraceptives. We repeated the same procedure a month later with the same odor donors, each on the opposite diet than before. Results of repeated measures analysis of variance showed that the odor of donors when on the nonmeat diet was judged as significantly more attractive, more pleasant, and less intense. This suggests that red meat consumption has a negative impact on perceived body odor hedonicity.

Adult↗

PubMed2006

Dietary intakes associated with metabolic syndrome in a cohort of Japanese ancestry.

The present study examined the association between dietary factors and metabolic syndrome in a 7-year follow-up of Japanese-Brazilians. In 1993, a survey estimated the prevalence of diabetes in a Japanese-Brazilian population aged 40-79 years. From 647 subjects studied at baseline, 394 (60.9 %) participated in a second survey (2000); after exclusion of subjects with self-reported diseases, 23.4 % (n 151) were included in the present analysis. Metabolic syndrome diagnosis was based on the National Cholesterol Education Program criteria modified for Asians. Food intake was assessed by a validated food-frequency questionnaire. At baseline, mean ages were 56.1 (sd 9.7) and 54.7 (sd 10.6) years for men and women, respectively. Similar cumulative incidence rates of the metabolic syndrome were found in both sexes (36.9 (95 % CI 26.6, 48.1)% for men and 38.8 (95 % CI 27.1, 51.4) % for women). In 1993, mean values of blood pressure, waist circumference for men and 2 h plasma glucose for both sexes were higher among subjects who developed metabolic syndrome when compared with those who did not. Comparisons of nutrient intakes between subsets of subjects who developed or did not develop metabolic syndrome showed an association of protein intake with the syndrome only in men (96.4 (sd 56.8) v. 74.3 (sd 26.0) g/d; P<0.05). Odds ratios of the metabolic syndrome across tertiles of food groups intake showed that among men the highest tertile of red meat consumption was associated with a 4.7-fold increase in risk of developing the syndrome, after adjustments for confounders. However, the statistical significance of this model disappeared when saturated fatty acids were added. The data raised the possibility of a role of red meat consumption for the occurrence of metabolic syndrome in Japanese-Brazilian men. The present findings may have implications for the prevention of metabolic syndrome in this high-risk population.

Blood Glucose↗

PubMed1988

Iron status of premenopausal women in a university community and its relationship to habitual dietary sources of protein.

Dietary intake and iron status was evaluated in 52 nonpregnant premenopausal women who were not using Fe supplements. Subjects were separated into three groups based on their habitual consumption of red meat (RM), fish and/or poultry (FP), or lacto-ovovegetarian (LV) sources of protein. No differences were observed among the groups in demographic characteristics (eg, age, height, weight, reported number of menstrual days per year) or total Fe intake. However, those women consuming red meat as their predominant source of protein demonstrated superior Fe status, especially reflected by higher serum ferritin concentrations (RM = 30.5 micrograms/L; FP = 15.6 micrograms/L; and LV = 19.1 micrograms/L). Thus, form rather than amount of dietary Fe appears to be most influential on Fe status; the basis for the distinctly lower Fe stores among heavy users of fish and/or poultry remains to be determined.

Adult↗

PubMed1999

Dietary factors and the survival of women with breast carcinoma.

BACKGROUND: Little is known regarding how specific dietary factors affect the survival of women with breast carcinoma. METHODS: Female registered nurses were followed with biennial questionnaires in a prospective cohort with 18 years of follow-up. Participants were women with breast carcinoma (n = 1982) diagnosed between 1976-1990 who completed a food frequency questionnaire after diagnosis. The main outcome measure was time to death from any cause. Analysis was made by multivariate Cox proportional hazards models. RESULTS: In multivariate analyses of diet after diagnosis, no apparent association was found between fat intake and mortality. The relative risk (and 95% confidence interval) of mortality comparing the highest with the lowest quintile of protein intake was 0.65 (0.47-0.88). There was no association between red meat and mortality. These associations were similar in analyses with breast carcinoma death as the outcome. CONCLUSIONS: No survival advantage was found for a low fat diet after a diagnosis of breast carcinoma. However, increased survival was observed among women eating more protein, but not red meat. The findings suggest that differences in diet may affect survival after a diagnosis of breast carcinoma and should be examined in greater detail.

Breast Neoplasms↗

PubMed2004

Fat, fiber, fruits, vegetables, and risk of colorectal adenomas.

A case-control study was conducted at the National Naval Medical Center (Maryland, USA) from 1994 to 1996 to investigate the possible association between dietary factors and colorectal adenomas. Cases (n = 239) were subjects diagnosed with adenomas (146 new and 93 recurrent) by sigmoidoscopy or colonoscopy. Those with no evidence of adenomas found by sigmoidoscopy were recruited as controls (n = 228). Dietary variables, assessed by a 100-item food frequency questionnaire, were analyzed by the logistic regression model, which was adjusted for age, gender and total energy intake. Variables of fat intake were further adjusted for red meat intake. An increased risk of 7% [odds ratio (OR): 1.07; 95% confidence interval (95% CI): 0.94-1.22] per 5% energy/day from total fat was observed. Every additional 5% unit of oleic acid intake/day significantly increased the adenoma risk by 115% (OR: 2.15; 95% CI: 1.05-4.39). Red meat fat increased the risk by 20% (OR: 1.20; 95% CI: 0.71-2.04), and white meat fat decreased the risk by 67% (OR: 0.33; 95% CI: 0.19-0.95) for every additional 5% unit of respective intake/day. Risk decreased by 41% (OR: 0.59; 95% CI: 0.41-0.86) for every additional 5% unit of fiber intake/day. Vegetable [OR per 100 g of vegetable intake/day: 0.83, 95% CI: 0.67-1.04] and fruit (OR per 100 g of fruit intake/day: 0.92, 95% CI: 0.82-1.03) intake showed an inverse association, and the results are suggestive of an association with the risk for adenomas. In conclusion, a strong positive association between oleic acid intake and colorectal adenoma risk was observed. This is likely to be an indicator of "unhealthy" food (meat, dairy, margarine, mayonnaise, sweet baked food) consumption in this population. Increased intake of dietary fiber was associated with a moderately decreased risk of adenomas.

Adenoma↗

PubMed1998

Risk factors for colorectal cancer in a prospective study among U.S. white men.

The association of diet, smoking/drinking and occupation with subsequent risk of fatal colorectal cancer was investigated in a cohort of 17,633 white males aged 35 and older, who completed a mail questionnaire in 1966. During the subsequent 20 years of follow-up, 120 colon cancer and 25 rectal cancer deaths were identified. Due to small numbers, no significant dose-response trends were observed in the study, but risk of colon cancer was elevated among heavy cigarette smokers (> or = 30/day; RR = 2.3, 95% CI 0.9-5.7), heavy beer drinkers (> or = 14 times/month; RR = 1.9, 95% CI 1.0-3.8) and white-collar workers (RR = 1.7, 95% CI 1.0-3.0) or crafts workers within service and trade industries (RR = 2.6, 95% CI 1.1-5.8). In addition, an increased risk was seen for those who consumed red meat more than twice a day (RR = 1.8, 95% CI 0.8-4.4). Risk patterns for cancers of the colon and rectum combined were similar to those reported for cancer of the colon, but the estimates were somewhat dampened. Our findings support previous reports that a high intake of red meat and a sedentary life-style may increase the risk of colon cancer.

Alcohol Drinking↗

PubMed1992

Colon cancer in Argentina. I: Risk from intake of dietary items.

A case-control study has been conducted to investigate the relationship between dietary components and risk of colon cancer in the La Plata area of Argentina. Cases are 110 patients newly diagnosed with colon cancer in 10 major hospitals between 1985 and 1986. Two neighbourhood controls per case were individually matched by age, sex and place of residence. Personal interviews elicited information on frequency of consumption of 140 food items during the 5-year period up to 6 months prior to interview. Risk is analyzed by quartiles of individual food items and groups of items. Multivariate conditional logistic regression modelling indicates that consumption of eggs is associated with increased risk for colon cancer (odds ratios by quartile: 1.0, 1.58, 2.02, 4.66), as are some dairy products (ORs of 1.93 for the highest quartile of consumption of cheese). Intake of vegetables, fish and poultry is associated with statistically significant decreasing risk (ORs of 0.075, 0.39 and 0.39, for the highest categories of consumption of vegetables, fish and poultry, respectively). The risk for red meat does not consistently increase as consumption increases. Risks are not altered by the inclusion of potential confounders such as education or body mass index. These findings confirm those of several previous studies and are of particular interest, since the Argentinean diet typically includes a high intake of red meat.

Adult↗

PubMed1992

Food consumption and cancer of the colon and rectum in north-eastern Italy.

The relation between dietary factors and the risk of colorectal cancer was investigated in a case-control study conducted in Pordenone province, North-eastern Italy, on 123 cases of colon cancer, 125 of rectal cancer and 699 controls admitted to hospital for acute, non-neoplastic or digestive disorders. Consistent positive associations were observed with more frequent consumption of bread (odds ratio, OR = 2.1 for colon and 2.2 for rectum for highest vs. lowest tertile), polenta (OR = 2.1 for colon, 1.9 for rectum), cheese (OR = 1.7 for colon, 1.8 for rectum) and eggs (2.5 for colon, 1.9 for rectum), whereas reduced ORs were observed in subjects reporting more frequent consumption of tomatoes (OR = 0.5 for colon and 0.4 for rectum). High consumption of margarine exerted a significant protection against cancer of the colon whereas high consumption of carrot spinach, whole-grain bread and pasta (favorably) and red meat (unfavorably) affected rectal cancer risk in particular. Thus the present study gives support for a protective effect associated with a fiber-rich or vegetable-rich diet, while it indicates that frequent consumption of refined starchy foods, eggs and fat-rich foods such as cheese and red meat is a risk factor for colo-rectal cancer.

Age Factors↗

PubMed2000

Family dinner and diet quality among older children and adolescents.

CONTEXT: The proportion of children eating dinner with their families declines with age and has decreased over time. Few data exist concerning the nutritional effect of eating family dinner. OBJECTIVE: To examine the associations between frequency of eating dinner with family and measures of diet quality. DESIGN: Cross-sectional. SETTING: A national convenience sample. PARTICIPANTS: There were 8677 girls and 7525 boys in the study, aged 9 to 14 years, who were children of the participants in the ongoing Nurses' Health Study II. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: We collected data from a self-administered mailed survey, including food and nutrient intakes from a validated semiquantitative food frequency questionnaire. Main outcome measures included servings per day of selected foods and food groups, daily intakes of selected macronutrients and micronutrients, and frequency of multivitamin use. RESULTS: Approximately 17% of participants ate dinner with members of their family never or some days, 40% on most days, and 43% every day. More than half of the 9-year-olds ate family dinner every day, whereas only about one third of 14-year-olds did so. In age- and sex-adjusted logistic regression models, the odds ratios associated with a frequency of family dinner of most days compared with never or some days, or every day compared with most days, were as follows: for eating at least 5 servings per day of fruits and vegetables, 1.45 (95% confidence interval [CI], 1.37-1.53); for eating any fried foods away from home, 0.67 (95% CI, 0.64-0.70); and for drinking any soda, 0.73 (95% CI, 0.66-0.80). Multiple linear regression showed that an increased frequency of family dinner was also associated with substantially higher intake of several nutrients, including fiber, calcium, folate, iron, vitamins B6, B12, C, and E; lower glycemic load; and lower intake of saturated and trans fat as a percentage of energy. We observed little or no effect on intakes of whole dairy products, red meat, or snack foods. Patterns were similar for boys and girls. CONCLUSIONS: Eating family dinner was associated with healthful dietary intake patterns, including more fruits and vegetables, less fried food and soda, less saturated and trans fat, lower glycemic load, more fiber and micronutrients from food, and no material differences in red meat or snack foods.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1991

Dietary effects on breast-cancer risk in Singapore.

It is suspected that diet influences the risk of getting breast cancer. A study of diet and breast cancer was done among 200 Singapore Chinese women with histologically confirmed disease and 420 matched controls. A quantitative food-frequency questionnaire was used to assess intakes of selected nutrients and foods 1 year before interview. Daily intakes were computed and risk analysed after adjustment for concomitant risk factors. In premenopausal women, high intakes of animal proteins and red meat were associated with increased risk. Decreased risk was associated with high intakes of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), beta-carotene, soya proteins, total soya products, a high PUFA to saturated fatty acid ratio, and a high proportion of soya to total protein. In multiple analysis, the variables which were significant after adjustment for each other were red meat (p less than 0.001) as a predisposing factor, and PUFA (p = 0.02), beta-carotene (p = 0.003), and soya protein (p = 0.02) as protective factors. The analysis of dietary variables in postmenopausal women gave uniformly non-significant results. Our finding that soya products may protect against breast cancer in younger women is of interest since these foods are rich in phyto-oestrogens.

Adult↗

PubMed1999

Dietary fat and carbohydrates are independently associated with circulating insulin-like growth factor 1 and insulin-like growth factor-binding protein 3 concentrations in healthy adults.

PURPOSE: To evaluate and quantify the association between consumption of specific food groups/macronutrients and concentrations of serum insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) and insulin-like growth factor-binding protein 3 (IGFBP-3). SUBJECTS AND METHODS: Data from a comprehensive food-frequency questionnaire administered to 115 healthy subjects were used to study cross-sectionally the relationship between nutritional factors and circulating IGF-1 and IGFBP-3 concentrations. Adjustment for the effect of total energy intake and a series of epidemiologic parameters (age, sex, height, body mass index, smoking, alcohol consumption, and coffee drinking) was implemented through multivariate linear regression. RESULTS: We observed that serum levels of IGF-1 are positively associated with consumption of red meats, fats, and oils. In addition, serum levels of IGF-1 are independently and positively associated with energy intake from lipids and negatively associated with energy intake from carbohydrates. Finally, serum levels of IGFBP-3 are independently and negatively associated with energy intake from saturated fat. CONCLUSION: Serum IGF-1 and/or IGFBP-3 concentrations are associated with red meat, carbohydrate intake, and fat intake and, thus, may mediate the effect of these dietary factors on the pathogenesis of several disease states. Additional studies are needed to further quantify these associations and elucidate the underlying mechanisms.

Adult↗

PubMed2002

Diet and colorectal cancer: an investigation of the lectin/galactose hypothesis.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: Mucosal expression of terminal unsubstituted galactose is increased in colon cancer and precancer and allows interaction with mitogenic galactose-binding lectins of dietary or microbial origin. This study tests the hypothesis that galactose, which is variably plentiful in fruit and vegetable but not cereal fibers, might prevent cancer by binding and inhibiting such lectins. METHODS: Colorectal cancer cases (512) and controls (512) were matched for age, sex, primary care practitioner, and postal code. A 160-item food-frequency questionnaire was used to estimate their usual pre-illness (6 months previous) diet, aspirin intake, and exercise. RESULTS: Neither cereal fiber nor fruit and vegetable fiber were protective when assessed by univariate analysis, whereas dietary fiber galactose content showed a dose-related protective effect (odds ratio [OR] highest quartile/lowest quartile, 0.67; confidence interval [CI], 0.47-0.95) that remained protective when adjusted for energy, red meat, alcohol, calcium, protein and fat intake, regular aspirin usage, and exercise. Intake of nonlegume green vegetables, assessed because of the high lectin content of legumes, was also protective (OR, 0.54; CI, 0.35-0.81), but this was not independent of galactose. Protective effects of exercise and regular daily aspirin consumption and harmful effects of high energy consumption and high red meat intake were confirmed. CONCLUSIONS: The protective effect of fruit and vegetable fibers may be related to their galactose content. This provides further evidence that the association between diet and colon cancer is mediated via specific food components and may explain the discrepant results of studies addressing the protective effects of fiber.

Adult↗

PubMed2000

[Nutrition and cancer].

The complex process of carcinogenesis is mainly due to environmental factors and therefore preventable. Diet may account for about 35% of cancer. This review presents the nutritional evidence for the development of the four most common cancers in Switzerland. The clearest risk factors for breast cancer are those associated with hormonal and reproductive factors. In relation to dietary factors, high alcohol intake, weight gain and adipositas (postmenopausal breast cancer) probably increase the risk of breast cancer. The evidence is less clear for the consumption of (animal) fat, meat, fruit and vegetables (inverse association). Hormones may also play an important role in the development of prostate cancer. There is no convincing evidence that any dietary factors modify the risk of prostate cancer. Diets high in vegetables are possibly protective, regular consumption of fat and meat possibly increase the risk. Intervention trials revealed protective effects of supplementation with selen or alpha-tocopherol. The main cause of lung cancer is cigarette smoking, and smokers whose diet is protective nevertheless remain at high risk. The evidence that diets high in vegetables and fruit protect against lung cancer is convincing, but it is not clear what constitutents are responsible for this effect. Intervention trials revealed no protective effect of beta-carotene, and in high risk groups, lung cancer risk was even increased. There is convincing evidence that diets high in vegetables decrease the risk of colorectal cancer. The same is true for regular physical activity. Alcohol and consumption of diets high in (red) meat, probably increase the risk of colorectal cancer. For cancer prevention it is recommended to choose a predominantly plant-based diet, to avoid obesity, to reduce the intake of fat, (red) meat, alcohol and salt, not to smoke and to be physically active. The main aim of nutritional therapy of cancer patients is to improve quality of life, whereas the effect on life expectancy is very limited.

Feeding Behavior↗

PubMed1999

Food groups and colorectal cancer risk.

Most studies of diet and colorectal cancer have considered nutrients and micronutrients, but the role of foods or food groups remains open to debate. To elucidate the issue, we examined data from a case-control study conducted between 1992 and 1997 in the Swiss canton of Vaud. Cases were 223 patients (142 men, 81 women) with incident, histologically confirmed colon (n= 119) or rectal (n= 104) cancer (median age 63 years), linked with the Cancer Registry of the Swiss Canton of Vaud, and controls were 491 subjects (211 men, 280 women, median age 58 years) admitted to the same university hospital for a wide spectrum of acute non-neoplastic conditions unrelated to long-term modifications of diet. Odds ratios (OR) were obtained after allowance for age, sex, education, smoking, alcohol, body mass index, physical activity and total energy intake. Significant associations were observed for refined grain (OR = 1.32 for an increase of one serving per day), and red meat (OR = 1.54), pork and processed meat (OR = 1.27), alcohol (OR = 1.28), and significant protections for whole grain (OR = 0.85), raw (OR = 0.85) and cooked vegetables (OR = 0.69), citrus (OR = 0.86) and other fruits (OR = 0.85), and for coffee (OR = 0.73). Garlic was also protective (OR = 0.32 for the highest tertile of intake). These findings in a central European population support the hypothesis that a diet rich in refined grains and red meat increases the risk of colorectal cancer; they, therefore, support the recommendation to substitute whole grains for refined grain, to limit meat intake, and to increase fruit and vegetable consumption.

Adult↗

PubMed1995

Dairy proteins protect against dimethylhydrazine-induced intestinal cancers in rats.

The impact of different dietary protein sources (whey, casein, soybean, red meat) on the incidence, burden and mass index of intestinal tumors induced by dimethylhydrazine in male Sprague-Dawley rats was assessed. A purified diet (based on AIN-76A) with a fat concentration of 20 g/100 g and other proteins substituted for casein (20 g/100 g) was used. Whey and casein diets were more protective against the development of intestinal tumors than were the red meat or soybean diets, as evidenced by a reduced incidence of rats affected (P = 0.15), fewer tumors per treatment group (burden, P < 0.005), and a reduced pooled area of tumors (tumor mass index) that formed (P = 0.39). Intracellular concentration of glutathione, an antioxidant and anticarcinogenic tripeptide, measured in liver, was greatest in whey protein- and casein-fed rats and lowest in soybean-fed animals (P < 0.001). For other tissues (spleen, colon, tumor) the differences were not significant, although the whey-fed animals had the highest concentrations of glutathione (P = 0.8). Whey is a source of precursors (cysteine-rich proteins) for glutathione synthesis and may be important in providing protection to the host by stimulating glutathione synthesis. A positive correlation was observed between mean fecal fat concentrations for rats in each treatment group and large intestinal tumor burden (r2 = 0.898, P = 0.05). Fecal fat could be involved in aiding initiation and/or promotion of carcinogenesis. Whatever the mechanism(s), dairy proteins, and whey proteins in particular, offer considerable protection to the host against dimethylhydrazine-induced tumors relative to the other protein sources examined.

Animals↗

PubMed2002

Preventing diverticular disease. Review of recent evidence on high-fibre diets.

OBJECTIVE: To review recent evidence on dietary factors associated with diverticular disease (DD) with special emphasis on dietary fibre. QUALITY OF EVIDENCE: MEDLINE was searched from January 1966 to December 2001 for articles on the relationship between dietary and other lifestyle factors and DD. Most articles either focused on dietary intervention in treating symptomatic DD or were case-control studies with inherent limitations for studying diet-disease associations. Only one large prospective study of male health professionals in the United States assessed diet at baseline and before initial diagnosis of DD. MAIN MESSAGE: A diet high in fibre mainly from fruits and vegetables and low in total fat and red meat decreases risk of DD. Evidence indicates that the insoluble component of fibre is strongly associated with lower risk of DD; this association was particularly strong for cellulose. Caffeine and alcohol do not substantially increase risk of DD, nor does obesity, but higher levels of physical activity seem to reduce risk of DD. CONCLUSION: A diet high in fibre and low in total fat and red meat and a lifestyle with more physical activity might help prevent DD.

Dietary Fats↗

PubMed1992

Risk factors for breast cancer by age and menopausal status: a case-control study in Singapore.

A case-control study was conducted among Singapore Chinese women, comprised of 200 histologically confirmed cases of breast cancer and 420 hospital controls. Subjects were interviewed on family history of breast cancer, social and demographic characteristics, reproductive history, and diet one year prior to interview. Differences in risk factors were observed according to menopausal status. In the premenopausal group, the most consistently significant nondietary effect was an increased risk with late age at first birth. In postmenopausal women, the most consistent nondietary effects were increased risks with nulliparity, tall stature, high educational status, and a family history of breast cancer. In premenopausal women, the strongest dietary effects were low risks with high intakes of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), beta-carotene, soya protein as a proportion of all protein, and a high risk with high red-meat intake. No dietary effects were observed in postmenopausal women. Examination of effects by 10-year age groups suggested that the differences in the effects of age at first birth, nulliparity, height, education, beta-carotene intake, and PUFA intake between premenopausal and postmenopausal women were at least partly attributable to age-related differences in the baseline distributions of these variables. The variation in the effects of red meat and soya protein appeared to be attributable mainly to menopausal status itself, which is consistent with the hypothesis that these factors operate on risk by way of hormonal mechanisms.

Adult↗