SEARCH · PubMed Health

Results for “Running”

Explore indexed PubMed citations for clinical trials, systematic reviews and public health research. Read source abstracts and follow each citation to its original PubMed record.

Quote a phrase for an exact phrase match. Source license links do not imply unrestricted reuse.

At least 271 records · Page 15Linked to original sources

PubMed1998

Effects of deep and shallow water running on spinal shrinkage.

OBJECTIVES: Running in water has the potential to decrease the compressive forces on the spine as the body is supported. The aim of the study was to determine the magnitude of this loss in stature compared with running on land. METHODS: Fourteen runners completed three 30 minute runs on separate days in deep water, shallow water, and on a motor driven treadmill. During the three conditions, runners exercised at 80% of their exercise mode specific peak oxygen consumption. Subjects rested in the Fowler position for 20 minutes before and after exercise. Measurements of changes in stature were taken before resting, before running, after 15 minutes of running, after 30 minutes of running, and after the post-exercise rest in the Fowler position. Changes in stature were recorded using a stadiometer accurate to 0.01 mm. RESULTS: Loss of stature values were 4.59 (1.48), 5.51 (2.18), and 2.92 (1.7) mm (means (SD)) for running on the treadmill, and in shallow and deep water respectively. Running in deep water caused significantly lower creep than in the other trials (p<0.05), with no difference between the shallow water and treadmill conditions. Loss of stature was greater in the first half of the run for all conditions (p<0.05). Ratings of perceived exertion did not differ between the three exercise conditions. CONCLUSION: Results support the use of deep water running for decreasing the compressive load on the spine.

Adult↗

PubMed2000

Physiological and biomechanical adaptations to the cycle to run transition in Olympic triathlon: review and practical recommendations for training.

Current knowledge of the physiological, biomechanical, and sensory effects of the cycle to run transition in the Olympic triathlon (1.5 km, 10 km, 40 km) is reviewed and implications for the training of junior and elite triathletes are discussed. Triathlon running elicits hyperventilation, increased heart rate, decreased pulmonary compliance, and exercise induced hypoxaemia. This may be due to exercise intensity, ventilatory muscle fatigue, dehydration, muscle fibre damage, a shift in metabolism towards fat oxidation, and depleted glycogen stores after a 40 km cycle. The energy cost (CR) of running during the cycle to run transition is also increased over that of control running. The increase in CR varies from 1.6% to 11.6% and is a reflection of triathlete ability level. This increase may be partly related to kinematic alterations, but research suggests that most biomechanical parameters are unchanged. A more forward leaning trunk inclination is the most significant observation reported. Running pattern, and thus running economy, could also be influenced by sensorimotor perturbations related to the change in posture. Technical skill in the transition area is obviously very important. The conditions under which the preceding cycling section is performed-that is, steady state or stochastic power output, drafting or non-drafting-are likely to influence the speed of adjustment to transition. The extent to which a decrease in the average 10 km running speed occurs during competition must be investigated further. It is clear that the higher the athlete is placed in the field at the end of the bike section, the greater the importance to their finishing position of both a quick transition area time and optimal adjustment to the physiological demands of the cycle to run transition. The need for, and current methods of, training to prepare junior and elite triathletes for a better transition are critically reviewed in light of the effects of sequential cycle to run exercise.

Adaptation, Physiological↗

PubMed2006

Possible inhibitory role of prolactin-releasing peptide for ACTH release associated with running stress.

Exercise around the lactate threshold induces a stress response, defined as "running stress." We have previously demonstrated that running stress is associated with activation of certain regions of the brain, e.g., the paraventricular hypothalamic nucleus (PVN) and supraoptic nucleus, that are hypothesized to play an integral role in regulating stress-related responses, including ACTH release during running. Thus we investigated the role of prolactin-releasing peptide (PrRP), found in the ventrolateral medulla and the nucleus of the solitary tract, which is known to project to the PVN during running-induced ACTH release. Accumulation of c-Fos in PrRP neurons correlated with running speeds, reaching maximal levels under running stress. Intracerebroventricular injection of neutralizing anti-PrRP antibodies led to increased plasma ACTH level and blood lactate accumulation during running stress, but not during restraint stress. Exogenous intracerebroventricular administration of low doses of PrRP had the opposite effects. Therefore, our results suggest that, during running stress, PrRP-containing neurons are activated in an exercise intensity-dependent manner, and likewise the produced endogenous PrRP attenuates ACTH release and blood lactate accumulation during running stress. Here we provide a novel perspective on understanding of PrRP in the endocrine-metabolic response associated with running stress.

Adrenocorticotropic Hormone↗

PubMed2000

Exploring dynamic similarity in human running using simulated reduced gravity.

The Froude number (a ratio of inertial to gravitational forces) predicts the occurrence of dynamic similarity in legged animals over a wide range of sizes and velocities for both walking and running gaits at Earth gravity. This is puzzling because the Froude number ignores elastic forces that are crucial for understanding running gaits. We used simulated reduced gravity as a tool for exploring dynamic similarity in human running. We simulated reduced gravity by applying a nearly constant upward force to the torsos of our subjects while they ran on a treadmill. We found that at equal Froude numbers, achieved through different combinations of velocity and levels of gravity, our subjects did not run in a dynamically similar manner. Thus, the inertial and gravitational forces that comprise the Froude number were not sufficient to characterize running in reduced gravity. Further, two dimensionless numbers that incorporate elastic forces, the Groucho number and the vertical Strouhal number, also failed to predict dynamic similarity in reduced-gravity running. To better understand the separate effects of velocity and gravity, we also studied running mechanics at fixed absolute velocities under different levels of gravity. The effects of velocity and gravity on the requirements of dynamic similarity differed in both magnitude and direction, indicating that there are no two velocity and gravity combinations at which humans will prefer to run in a dynamically similar manner. A comparison of walking and running results demonstrated that reduced gravity had different effects on the mechanics of each gait. This suggests that a single unifying hypothesis for the effects of size, velocity and gravity on both walking and running gaits will not be successful.

Animals↗

PubMed2002

Mechanical power output during running accelerations in wild turkeys.

We tested the hypothesis that the hindlimb muscles of wild turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo) can produce maximal power during running accelerations. The mechanical power developed during single running steps was calculated from force-plate and high-speed video measurements as turkeys accelerated over a trackway. Steady-speed running steps and accelerations were compared to determine how turkeys alter their running mechanics from a low-power to a high-power gait. During maximal accelerations, turkeys eliminated two features of running mechanics that are characteristic of steady-speed running: (i) they produced purely propulsive horizontal ground reaction forces, with no braking forces, and (ii) they produced purely positive work during stance, with no decrease in the mechanical energy of the body during the step. The braking and propulsive forces ordinarily developed during steady-speed running are important for balance because they align the ground reaction force vector with the center of mass. Increases in acceleration in turkeys correlated with decreases in the angle of limb protraction at toe-down and increases in the angle of limb retraction at toe-off. These kinematic changes allow turkeys to maintain the alignment of the center of mass and ground reaction force vector during accelerations when large propulsive forces result in a forward-directed ground reaction force. During the highest accelerations, turkeys produced exclusively positive mechanical power. The measured power output during acceleration divided by the total hindlimb muscle mass yielded estimates of peak instantaneous power output in excess of 400 W kg(-1) hindlimb muscle mass. This value exceeds estimates of peak instantaneous power output of turkey muscle fibers. The mean power developed during the entire stance phase increased from approximately zero during steady-speed runs to more than 150 W kg(-1) muscle during the highest accelerations. The high power outputs observed during accelerations suggest that elastic energy storage and recovery may redistribute muscle power during acceleration. Elastic mechanisms may expand the functional range of muscle contractile elements in running animals by allowing muscles to vary their mechanical function from force-producing struts during steady-speed running to power-producing motors during acceleration.

Acceleration↗

PubMed1992

Factors related to the incidence of running injuries. A review.

The term incidence is interpreted in many different ways in the literature. Running injury epidemiology should include denominator-based incidence rates, in which the number of new injuries observed during 1 year is related to the population of runners at risk. In 10 studies with denominator-based incidences selected from the literature, the annual incidence rates of injured runners vary from 24 to 65%. Comparison of denominator-based incidence rates from different studies requires a discussion of the denominator and of the numerator; i.e. the study population and the definition of running injury. Injury definitions differ from one study to another. Study populations are particular subgroups of the total running population and they differ from one study to another. Subgroups may differ in origin: volunteers, runners from a mailing list or entrants of a road race. Incidence rates are higher among supervised volunteers than among listed runners, and higher among both these groups than among race-entrants. The choice from the universe of the running population and the used injury definition are methodological issues. Incidence is dependently associated with the prevalence of predisposing running injury factors. There is consistent epidemiological support for the role of a few aetiological factors; i.e. higher mileage per week, previous running injury, higher running speed and lesser running experience. Higher mileage per week is probably the strongest predictor. In the selected injury studies, mileage per week differs from one study population to another. Differences in mileage per week do not explain differences in incidence rate between these studies. In conclusion, caution must be taken when comparing annual incidence rates of different studies. Methodological issues are at least as important as aetiological factors. Study populations may refer to different selections of the universe of the running population. The lengths of observation periods and 'running injury' definitions may differ from one study to another.

Epidemiology↗

PubMed1996

Metabolic responses and mechanisms during water immersion running and exercise.

The low impact nature of exercise in the water has increased interest in this form of exercise and specifically in water running as a cross-training modality. It is used as a possible preventative and therapeutic modality for rehabilitation. The high impact nature of land running predisposes the runner to stress of the lower limbs and overuse injuries. The need to reduce impact, as well as provide a low impact or non-weight-bearing condition for rehabilitation, has led runners and their coaches to the water. This increased interest by coaches and their athletes, attending sports medicine physicians and rehabilitative professionals has stimulated research into water immersion to the neck (WI) running. Exercise in the water has long been used by rehabilitative professionals with patients who have physically debilitating conditions (i.e. arthritis, musculoskeletal disorders) as it provides a medium for even those with limited mobility to exercise and relax their muscles. Numerous comparative studies into WI running from a metabolic as well as a training perspective have been published. WI has also long been used to simulate weightlessness for the comparative study of cardiorespiratory function and thermoregulation. WI and the associated cephalad shift in blood volume has implications on exercise responses during WI running exercise. In addition, the non-weight-bearing nature of WI running also raises issues of the cross-training benefits of WI running. WI running style and prior familiarity with the activity have been found to have a direct relationship with the comparability of WI to land running. This review presents current research into WI running, training specificity and comparative physiology.

Bicycling↗

PubMed2006

Nonlinear dynamics of heart rate and oxygen uptake in exhaustive 10,000 m runs: influence of constant vs. freely paced.

We hypothesized that a freely paced 10,000 m running race would induce a smaller physiological strain (heart rate and oxygen uptake) compared with one performed at the same average speed but with an imposed constant pace. Furthermore, we analyzed the scaling properties with a wavelet transform algorithm computed log2 (wavelet transform energy) vs. log2 (scale) to get slope alpha, which is the scaling exponent, a measure of the irregularity of a time series. HR was sampled beat by beat and V2O, breath by breath. The enforced constant pace run elicited a significantly higher mean VO2 value (53 +/- 4 vs. 48 +/- 5 ml kg(-1) min(-1), P < 0.001), HR (169 +/- 13 vs. 165 +/- 14 bpm, P < 0.01), and blood lactate concentration (6.6 +/- 0.9 vs. 7.5 +/- 1 mM, P < 0.001) than the freely paced run. HR and VO2 signals showed a scaling behavior, which means that the signals have a similar irregularity (a self-similarity) whatever the scale of analysis may be, in both constant and free-paced 10,000 m runs. The scaling exponent was not significantly different according to the type of run (free vs. constant, P > 0.05) and the signal (HR vs. VO2, P > 0.05). The higher metabolic cost of constant vs. free paced run did not affect the self-similarity of HR and VO2, in either run. The HR signal only kept its scaling behavior only with a distance run, no matter the type of run (free or constant). The results suggest that the larger degree of pace variation in freely paced races may be an intentionally chosen strategy designed to minimize the physiological strain during severe exercise and to prevent a premature termination of effort, even if the variability of the heart rate and VO2, are comparable in an enforced constant vs. a freely paced run and if HR keeps the same variability until the arrival.

Adult↗

PubMed2004

Running performance in middle-school runners.

AIM: This study examined the relationship of 3-km run time to indices of aerobic and anaerobic ability in 9 male runners (13.4+/-0.6 years, mean+/-SD). METHODS: Anthropometric measurements were made, and an exercise test to determine running economy at 187 m x min(-1) and (.-)VO(2max) were assessed on a treadmill. On a separate day, 2 55-m sprints followed by a 3-km run were performed on a 200-m indoor track. Capillary blood samples were obtained from a finger tip immediately after the run to determine blood lactate level. Fractional utilization (%(.-)VO(2max) used during the 3-km run) was calculated. Correlations were used to examine the relationship between run time and the physiological measurements. RESULTS: Mean values for (.-)VO(2), HR and RER at maximal exercise were 61.7+/-4.4 ml x kg(-1)xmin(-1), 198.9+/-6.7 b x min(-1), and 1.16+/-0.04, respectively. The average time to run 3 km was 13.27+/-0.97 min (90.1+/-7.2% of (.-)VO(2max)). Post-run blood lactate level was 8.3+/-3.2 mmol x L(-1) and was significantly related (r=-0.73, p=0.02) to 3-km time. Fractional utilization tended to be related (r=-0.56, p=0.12) to time. CONCLUSIONS: In this age group the ability to run at a high percentage of (.-)VO(2max) and tolerate a high blood lactate appear to be important determinants of running performance in young male runners.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1991

Lower extremity joint kinetics and energetics during backward running.

The purpose of this study was to measure lower extremity joint moments of force and joint muscle powers used to perform backward running. Ten trials of high speed (100 Hz) sagittal plane film records and ground reaction force data (1000 Hz) describing backward running were obtained from each of five male runners. Fifteen trials of forward running data were obtained from one of these subjects. Inverse dynamics were performed on these data to obtain the joint moments and powers, which were normalized to body mass to make between-subject comparisons. Backward running hip moment and power patterns were similar in magnitude and opposite in direction to forward running curves and produced more positive work in stance. Functional roles of knee and ankle muscles were interchanged between backward and forward running. Knee extensors were the primary source of propulsion in backward running owing to greater moment and power output (peak moment = 3.60 N.m.kg-1; peak power = 12.40 W.kg-1) compared with the ankle (peak moment = 1.92 N.m.kg-1; peak power = 7.05 W.kg-1). The ankle plantarflexors were the primary shock absorbers, producing the greatest negative power (peak = -6.77 W.kg-1) during early stance. Forward running had greater ankle moment and power output for propulsion and greater knee negative power for impact attenuation. The large knee moment in backward running supported previous findings indicating that backward running training leads to increased knee extensor torque capabilities.

Adult↗

PubMed1978

Effect of experimental alterations in excess weight on aerobic capacity and distance running performance.

To experimentally investigate the effect of excess body weight or fat on maximal oxygen uptake (Vo2 max) and distance running performance, the metabolic response to maximal and submaximal treadmill running and the 12-min run performance were measured in six subjects under each of four added-weight (AW) conditions: normal body weight and 5, 10, and 15% additional external weight, added to the trunk. AW was found to systematically and significantly decrease Vo2 max expressed relative to the total weight carried (ml/min.dg TW), maximal treadmill (TM) run time and 12-min run distance, but not to systematically affect Vo2 max (1/min) or Vo2 max (ml/min.kg FFW). An increase of 5% AW was found, on the average, to decrease Vo2 max (ml/min.kg TW) 2.4 ml, the TM run time 35 sec and the 12-min run distance 89 m. These decreases were a direct consequence of the increased energy cost of running at submaximal speeds. It was concluded that changes in excess body weight can influence Vo2 max expressed relative to body weight and distance run performance independent of any change in cardiovascular capacity. Failure to distinguish the metabolic effects of body fatness from the influence of cardiorespiratory capacity may result in misleading interpretation of distance run test scores.

Adult↗

PubMed2000

Pairings of a distinctive chamber with the aftereffect of wheel running produce conditioned place preference.

Wheel running reinforces behavior that precedes it. Also, wheel running can produce activity anorexia, a marked suppression of feeding in food-restricted rats. Some authors propose that the activity anorexia effect is produced by activation of the same reward system that mediates the reinforcing effect. One hypothesis is that such activation persists after wheel running stops and results in a rewarding aftereffect that suppresses feeding. Alternatively, such activation may give rise to an opponent process, an aversive aftereffect that suppresses feeding. The method of place conditioning was used to test whether the aftereffect of wheel running is rewarding or aversive. Food-deprived rats received pairings of a distinctive chamber with the aftereffect of wheel running. In Experiment 1, 2 h in a running wheel followed by 30 min in a distinctive chamber produced conditioned place preference. In Experiment 2, 22-22.5 h in a running wheel was followed by 30 min in the chamber and then a 60-min feeding test. Wheel running suppressed feeding and produced conditioned place preference. The conditioned place preference indicates that the aftereffect of wheel running is reinforcing rather than aversive. This finding supports the idea that the activation of the reward system persists after wheel running stops, thereby suppressing food intake.

Animals↗

PubMed1982

The interaction of endurance running and ethanol on skeletal muscle mitochondria.

This study was designed to measure the interaction of 8 weeks of endurance running and chronic ethanol consumption upon skeletal muscle mitochondria. Male Sprague-Dawley rats were assigned to 1 of 4 groups; ethanol diet sedentary (SED-E), ethanol diet trained (RUN-E), control diet sedentary (SED-E), and control diet trained (RUN-C). The ethanol groups, SED-E and RUN-E, consumed 35% of their calories as ethanol in a liquid diet. The trained groups, RUN-C and RUN-E, ran 5 days/wk for 8 weeks and were running 30 m/min for 90 min/day by the last week. The SED-E group had significantly lower body weights and gastrocnemius-plantaris weights than did the other 3 groups. The left ventricular heart weights showed no treatment effects. Mitochondrial respirations and cytochrome content were significantly depressed in the SED-E group and significantly elevated in the RUN-C and RUN-E groups. Two conclusions can be drawn from these data; (1) the ethanol diet caused a depression in mitochrondrial function of skeletal muscle, in weight gain, and in gastrocnemius-plantaris muscle mass amd (2) an endurance running program offset the deleterious effects of ethanol in all of these areas.

Alcoholism↗

PubMed1996

Running-induced testicular recrudescence in the meadow vole: role of the circadian system.

Access to running wheels stimulates testicular recrudescence in meadow voles whose reproductive axes have been suppressed by short day lengths. The present experiments addressed the mechanism by which running stimulates the reproductive system. The results from two experiments suggest that running acts specifically to override the short day length suppression of the gonads: access to running wheels had no stimulatory effect on the testes of meadow voles housed in long day lengths, and the degree to which running stimulated the testes of meadow voles housed under short day lengths was significantly correlated with the degree to which the voles were reproductively photoresponsive. A third experiment queried whether running shifts the circadian clock in such a way as to cause an overlap between the short day length photoperiod and the period of sensitivity to light. This proved not to be the case: access to running wheels stimulated testicular recrudescence in meadow voles housed in constant darkness. Two experiments demonstrated that access to a running wheel did not alter short day length profiles of pineal melatonin content or the nocturnal rise in pineal melatonin content in the absence of light. Finally, daily patterns of circulating corticosterone levels did differ between voles with and without access to running wheels, although the difference could not be attributed to differences in the circadian system. Overall, these experiments suggest that running stimulates gonadal recrudescence by acting on the pathway by which photoperiod suppresses reproduction downstream of melatonin production.

Animals↗

PubMed2004

Comparison of t-PA and u-PA levels in maximal treadmill and deep-water running.

BACKGROUND: The differences of urokinase-type plasminogen activator (u-PA) and tissue-type plasminogen activator (t-PA) between maximal treadmill and deep-water running have not been reported. The purpose of this investigation was to compare u-PA and t-PA levels during maximal treadmill and deep-water running. METHODS: Six male subjects carried out two maximal exercises, one on a treadmill and the other running in deep water using a vest. The u-PA, t-PA, total plasminogen activator inhibitor (PAI-1), epinephrine, and norepinephrine in plasma and lactate and ammonia in blood concentrations were measured after maximal exercise. RESULTS: The blood lactate and ammonia concentrations were significantly higher in treadmill running than in deep-water running during recovery following exercise (P < 0.05). At 1 min after exercise, the plasma epinephrine, norepinephrine levels, and the u-PA and t-PA levels were higher in treadmill running compared with that in deep-water running (P < 0.05). No significant difference between the two runs was found in PAI-1 level. CONCLUSION: The maximal treadmill running induced a greater increase in u-PA and t-PA levels than maximal deep-water running.

Adult↗

PubMed2003

Effects on run-off water quantity and quality of urban organic wastes applied in a degraded semi-arid ecosystem.

Biosolids and composted municipal solid wastes were surface-applied (0 and 80 Mg ha(-1)) to a degraded soil in a semi-arid environment to determine their effects on the quantity and quality of run-off water. Three and 4 years after application, a simulated rainfall was performed (intensity=942.5 ml min(-1) and kinetic energy=3.92 J m(-2)) on 0.078 m(2) plots using a portable rainfall simulator. The run-off from the different treatment plots was collected and analysed. The type of treatment was highly related to infiltration, run-off and sediment production. The biosolid-treated plots showed the minimum value of total run-off, maximum time to the beginning of run-off and maximum run-off ratio (the relationship between total rainfall and run-off). The MSW-treated plots showed values intermediate between biosolid-treated plots and control plots. Soil losses were also closely related to treatment type. Control plots showed the maximum sediment yield, MSW-treated plots showed intermediate values, and biosolid plots the minimum values for washout. The concentrations of NH(4)-N and PO(4)-P in the run-off water were significantly higher in the treated plots than in control plots. The highest PO(4)-P value, 0.73 mg l(-1), was obtained in the soil treated with biosolids; NO(3)-N concentration also increased significantly with respect to the control and MSW treatments. NH(4)-N concentrations of 15.6 and 15.0 mg l(-1) were recorded in the soils treated with biosolids and MSW, respectively, values approximately five times higher than those obtained in run-off water from untreated soil. However, the concentrations of all these constituents were lower than threshold limits cited in water quality standards for agricultural use. With the exception of Cu, all trace metals analysed in the run-off water were below detection limits.

Conservation of Natural Resources↗

PubMed2003

Hippocampal brain-derived neurotrophic factor but not neurotrophin-3 increases more in mice selected for increased voluntary wheel running.

Voluntary wheel running in rats increases hippocampal brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) expression, a neurochemical important for neuronal survival, differentiation, connectivity and synaptic plasticity. Here, we report the effects of wheel running on BDNF and neurotrophin-3 (NT-3) protein levels in normal control mice, and in mice selectively bred (25 generations) for increased voluntary wheel running. We hypothesized that increased voluntary wheel running in selected (S) mice would increase CNS BDNF and NT-3 protein levels more than in control (C) mice. Baseline hippocampal BDNF levels (mice housed without running wheels) were similar in S and C mice. Following seven nights of running, hippocampal BDNF increased significantly more in S versus C mice, and levels were correlated with distance run (considering C and S mice together). Spinal and cerebellar BDNF and hippocampal NT-3 levels were not significantly affected by wheel running in any group, but there was a small, positive correlation between spinal C3-C6 BDNF levels and distance run (considering C and S mice together). This is the first study to demonstrate that mice which choose to run more have greater elevations in hippocampal BDNF, suggesting enhanced potential for exercise-induced hippocampal neuroplasticity.

Animals↗

PubMed2002

Amino acid runs in eukaryotic proteomes and disease associations.

We present a comparative proteome analysis of the five complete eukaryotic genomes (human, Drosophila melanogaster, Caenorhabditis elegans, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Arabidopsis thaliana), focusing on individual and multiple amino acid runs, charge and hydrophobic runs. We found that human proteins with multiple long runs are often associated with diseases; these include long glutamine runs that induce neurological disorders, various cancers, categories of leukemias (mostly involving chromosomal translocations), and an abundance of Ca(2 +) and K(+) channel proteins. Many human proteins with multiple runs function in development and/or transcription regulation and are Drosophila homeotic homologs. A large number of these proteins are expressed in the nervous system. More than 80% of Drosophila proteins with multiple runs seem to function in transcription regulation. The most frequent amino acid runs in Drosophila sequences occur for glutamine, alanine, and serine, whereas human sequences highlight glutamate, proline, and leucine. The most frequent runs in yeast are of serine, glutamine, and acidic residues. Compared with the other eukaryotic proteomes, amino acid runs are significantly more abundant in the fly. This finding might be interpreted in terms of innate differences in DNA-replication processes, repair mechanisms, DNA-modification systems, and mutational biases. There are striking differences in amino acid runs for glutamine, asparagine, and leucine among the five proteomes.

Animals↗